Latest / Missing Pages / Episode 16: Agency Amidst Oppression

Transcript

Episode 16: Agency Amidst Oppression · Missing Pages

• 0:00
  SPEAKER_00: Hey, hey, welcome to Missing Pages.
• 0:05
  SPEAKER_00: This is episode 16, Agency Amidst Oppression.
• 0:12
  This episode will be covering this era's story of slavery
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  between 1676 and 1763,
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  SPEAKER_00: the growth of the institution within the colonial world,
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  SPEAKER_00: and how this institution differs between all the different colonies.
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  SPEAKER_00: As always,
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  SPEAKER_00: and especially with this one,
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  SPEAKER_00: if you have any comments,
• 0:35
  SPEAKER_00: concerns,
• 0:37
  SPEAKER_00: want to call me out on anything,
• 0:39
  please head on over to missingpages.substack.com and I'd love
• 0:44
  to hear from you.
• 0:46
  Also,
• 0:46
  if you like this show,
• 0:47
  please give it a rating on whatever podcasting platform you use.
• 0:52
  SPEAKER_00: Each one counts.
• 0:54
  SPEAKER_00: Now sit back and relax in your chair or couch or the seat of your car.
• 1:00
  for episode 16 agency amidst oppression where are these missing
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  pages this map we
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  must have these pages back this one's got pages missing why the
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  page is missing
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  SPEAKER_00: like a book with missing pages
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  SPEAKER_00: Something I struggle with in this podcast,
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  SPEAKER_00: especially around contentious topics of modern day,
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  SPEAKER_00: modern America,
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  SPEAKER_00: is how to cover them with grace and dignity,
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  while also ensuring that I'm not kowtowing to modern
• 1:58
  affectations about certain issues.
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  SPEAKER_00: To put it bluntly,
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  I don't want the way we talk about certain issues in history
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  today in their shallow,
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  SPEAKER_00: reductive versions to make their way into this podcast.
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  SPEAKER_00: I'm trying my best to ensure that doesn't happen.
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  SPEAKER_00: Now, I probably do do that.
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  SPEAKER_00: I probably am not a perfect person, probably.
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  But there's no single issue that I struggle with more in this
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  podcast than this one,
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  SPEAKER_00: which by the title and description of this podcast,
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  SPEAKER_00: you'll know,
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  SPEAKER_00: is slavery.
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  I stated something similar in the first era,
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  that slavery is a contentious topic.
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  Because of its ramifications downstream and throughout history
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  and even into the
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  SPEAKER_00: modern day to a certain extent.
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  SPEAKER_00: So I want to make sure that I cover it in a way that isn't offensive.
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  SPEAKER_00: Not that giving offense is such a bad thing,
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  SPEAKER_00: because by speaking at all,
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  SPEAKER_00: I'm risking offending someone.
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  SPEAKER_00: But I don't want to use old data, basically.
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  SPEAKER_00: I don't want to use old ways of thinking about this issue.
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  SPEAKER_00: Now,
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  SPEAKER_00: this is an issue that's been pretty well litigated by this point,
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  so it's not like I'm going to be starting a podcast here
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  talking about the merits
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  SPEAKER_00: of slavery.
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  SPEAKER_00: But what is important is to understand,
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  SPEAKER_00: at least from our modern view,
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  SPEAKER_00: as best we can,
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  SPEAKER_00: why this institution grew in the way that it did in early America,
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  SPEAKER_00: in colonial America specifically.
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  SPEAKER_00: It's important for us to understand,
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  because it does have ramifications during the Revolution and
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  obviously during early America,
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  and ultimately the Civil War,
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  and the downstream effects for a century beyond that.
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  SPEAKER_00: So I don't want to shortchange this issue,
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  and I actually struggle with that because I feel as if in the
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  first episode,
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  SPEAKER_00: despite the fact that I read two full books for this,
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  SPEAKER_00: one of them being a little bit on the short end,
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  SPEAKER_00: to be fair,
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  SPEAKER_00: and one more that had a
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  SPEAKER_00: not direct tie into this topic,
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  SPEAKER_00: but did discuss the expansion of slavery in Virginia specifically,
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  SPEAKER_00: and is considered one of the classics of historical literature,
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  SPEAKER_00: I still felt as if I didn't give a good sense of what was going on.
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  SPEAKER_00: And I think of what happened is I was trying to do two things at once.
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  SPEAKER_00: I was trying to show the history of slavery pre-American colonization,
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  SPEAKER_00: but also then limit it to,
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  SPEAKER_00: as much as I can,
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  SPEAKER_00: the English colonies specifically,
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  SPEAKER_00: and the mainland more specifically than that.
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  The trouble with the first era is that the mainland didn't
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  really see much slavery
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  SPEAKER_00: until the end.
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  SPEAKER_00: And by much, I mean the numbers are in the few thousands by 1676.
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  SPEAKER_00: By 1763, that's in the millions.
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  SPEAKER_00: And in many of the colonies on the mainland,
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  SPEAKER_00: black slaves outnumber whites,
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  SPEAKER_00: not to the extent of the plantations in the West Indies,
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  SPEAKER_00: but still 60% slave populations in Carolina,
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  SPEAKER_00: for instance.
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  So what I struggled with thinking about how to go through this
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  is I learned a lot
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  actually in researching for this episode specifically about
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  some of the nuances of
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  SPEAKER_00: slavery in America.
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  Not the nuance in the idea that both sides have a fair view of
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  what slavery is and is not.
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  SPEAKER_00: It is still an evil institution no matter how you look at it.
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  SPEAKER_00: But a nuanced view to show that
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  Despite the fact that they were enslaved,
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  there was still agency and a loose freedom.
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  SPEAKER_00: Freedom is not the correct word here,
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  SPEAKER_00: but the ability to act on their own and even make money on their own,
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  SPEAKER_00: build their own houses,
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  SPEAKER_00: build their own communities,
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  SPEAKER_00: have families.
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  And we'll see how this is different in different areas between
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  the cities and the plantations.
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  But I think the most important aspect of this is that we need
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  to dispel the fiction
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  SPEAKER_00: that black slaves did not have agency,
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  were held down completely to the point where they had no
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  ability to do anything on
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  SPEAKER_00: their own.
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  That's not to say that this was not attempted and these ideas
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  of what black people
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  SPEAKER_00: thought and how they were was not vile and
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  SPEAKER_00: And completely wrong,
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  SPEAKER_00: there was dehumanization,
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  SPEAKER_00: there were beatings,
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  SPEAKER_00: there was inhumane treatment of human beings in these plantations,
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  SPEAKER_00: in the workshops,
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  SPEAKER_00: on the docks.
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  SPEAKER_00: But where they could, these slaves, just like everybody else...
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  SPEAKER_00: pressed their advantage any way they possibly could.
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  SPEAKER_00: It was much lower,
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  SPEAKER_00: a much smaller advantage than the free whites or free blacks,
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  SPEAKER_00: even,
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  SPEAKER_00: in some cases.
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  SPEAKER_00: But it did exist.
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  SPEAKER_00: This advantage did exist in certain areas.
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  SPEAKER_00: And I'll get through all of that.
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  in this episode and get into more detail with all of these
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  different aspects but I
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  I hope I don't have to keep repeating this intro on these
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  episodes because I don't
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  want it to feel like I'm scared or pandering or or
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  non-committal to the facts that
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  SPEAKER_00: I'm going to portray here
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  SPEAKER_00: That, hey, you know what?
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  SPEAKER_00: I could be wrong.
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  SPEAKER_00: Yes, obviously I can be wrong.
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  SPEAKER_00: And I accept that with every single one of these episodes.
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  SPEAKER_00: But this one is so, there's so much scholarship in this field.
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  SPEAKER_00: And not just in the Americas, but in worldwide slavery.
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  SPEAKER_00: And beyond that, there's so much bluster.
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  There's so much scholarship,
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  but there's also so much nonsense surrounding this issue.
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  With the New York Times publishing works like the 1619 Project
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  that postulates that
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  the revolution was actually fought to protect the rights of
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  slave owners to keep
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  SPEAKER_00: their slaves,
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  SPEAKER_00: which has been debunked,
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  SPEAKER_00: that's beyond the scope of this era,
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  SPEAKER_00: but it is indicative of the problem.
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  SPEAKER_00: When talking about slaves and slave owners,
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  SPEAKER_00: they get reduced into oppressor,
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  SPEAKER_00: oppressed archetypes.
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  SPEAKER_00: They're not people anymore.
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  SPEAKER_00: They're tropes.
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  SPEAKER_00: They're characters.
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  SPEAKER_00: And I say this because during this episode,
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  there's going to be times where it feels like I'm not quite
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  justifying it,
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  SPEAKER_00: but downplaying the effects of slavery.
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  SPEAKER_00: I'm going to try my best not to do that because it's still slavery.
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  SPEAKER_00: It's still forced labor on human beings by other human beings.
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  SPEAKER_00: It's still, again, an evil institution.
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  SPEAKER_00: But as I said, agency matters.
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  And the image that you get of a slave holding on to a post
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  while he gets whipped did exist.
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  SPEAKER_00: But I'd like you to paint this picture as well.
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  SPEAKER_00: before we move on.
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  SPEAKER_00: In Virginia,
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  some slaves were able to sell their own time and in doing so
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  afford to buy certain clothes.
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  And in his book,
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  Many Thousands Gone,
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  The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America,
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  SPEAKER_00: Ira Berlin describes this aspect of slavery in Virginia,
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  SPEAKER_00: this ability to sell their labor,
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  SPEAKER_00: like this,
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  SPEAKER_00: quote,
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  The proceeds of their independent production permitted slaves
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  to enrich their
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  SPEAKER_00: family's diet and expand their wardrobes.
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  SPEAKER_00: They purchased clothes beyond the standard issue of shoes,
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  SPEAKER_00: shirt and trousers or shift,
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  SPEAKER_00: and waistcoat.
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  SPEAKER_00: To prevent his slaves from,
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  SPEAKER_00: quote,
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  SPEAKER_00: buying liquor with their fowls,
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  SPEAKER_00: end quote,
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  SPEAKER_00: one Virginia planter,
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  SPEAKER_00: quote,
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  SPEAKER_00: obliged them to buy linen,
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  SPEAKER_00: end quote,
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  SPEAKER_00: to make their clothes.
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  It was an ingenious scheme and yet another way to put the
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  slaves' independent
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  SPEAKER_00: production in the planter's service.
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  SPEAKER_00: But,
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  SPEAKER_00: much to their chagrin,
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  SPEAKER_00: slaveholders were astounded to find their slaves dressing the gentlemen,
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  SPEAKER_00: complete with watches in their pockets,
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  SPEAKER_00: powdered wigs on their heads,
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  SPEAKER_00: and silver buckles on their shoes.
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  SPEAKER_00: End quote.
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  SPEAKER_00: Slaves would be able to buy nice clothes,
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  SPEAKER_00: nice food,
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  SPEAKER_00: and even build communities with their own gardens,
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  SPEAKER_00: their own livestock,
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  SPEAKER_00: their own chickens.
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  That's a very different picture than the one you probably have
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  in your mind when
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  SPEAKER_00: you think of slave.
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  SPEAKER_00: And that's a very important thing to understand.
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  Perhaps this picture that we have in our head of slaves comes
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  from the 1800s.
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  SPEAKER_00: I don't know.
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  SPEAKER_00: I haven't read about it yet.
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  SPEAKER_00: We'll get there.
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  SPEAKER_00: But as I read more about slaves in America,
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  SPEAKER_00: despite the terrible conditions,
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  SPEAKER_00: the inhumane treatment and the threat,
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  SPEAKER_00: the constant threat of maiming and murder from the slave owners,
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  SPEAKER_00: they're able to carve out these tiny moments to bring out their humanity.
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  SPEAKER_00: And that's what I want to make sure I focus on.
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  We all know that slavery is bad,
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  but it is in these dark moments that we can find some light.
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  SPEAKER_00: Now with that,
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  SPEAKER_00: let's get into the notes,
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  SPEAKER_00: the AP notes with regard to slavery in the late colonial era.
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  SPEAKER_00: So as I looked through these notes,
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  SPEAKER_00: I became a little bit confused because I know I learned about slavery.
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  The only thing that I could find about slavery in the notes
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  that I did not talk
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  SPEAKER_00: about last season,
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  which I might as well cover here real quick because it does
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  actually happen in this era,
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  SPEAKER_00: though I talked about it previously,
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  SPEAKER_00: is this.
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  SPEAKER_00: In the 1690s,
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  what became Carolina's major staple and why was the institution
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  of slavery
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  SPEAKER_00: especially useful for harvesting this crop?
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  SPEAKER_00: I said, rice was the major crop.
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  SPEAKER_00: And African slaves had experience with growing rice.
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  SPEAKER_00: African slaves were also immune to malaria.
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  SPEAKER_00: And later on we have this.
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  This note I will be splitting into two as I will be covering
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  the second half in the
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  SPEAKER_00: next episode.
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  SPEAKER_00: But it starts with this.
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  SPEAKER_00: Slavery continued to grow as an institution in the 18th century.
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  In South Carolina,
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  slaves made up 60% of the population and had very demanding work.
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  SPEAKER_00: I also have this from Virginia,
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  SPEAKER_00: which also goes into this era,
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  SPEAKER_00: but I talked about it in the last era.
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  SPEAKER_00: My mistake.
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  SPEAKER_00: In the last quarter of the 17th century,
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  SPEAKER_00: 1675 to 1700,
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  SPEAKER_00: slavery began to replace indentured servitude in the Chesapeake.
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  SPEAKER_00: This was especially true in the 1690s.
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  SPEAKER_00: What are two major reasons why this happened?
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  Bacon's rebellion convinced planters that ex-indentured
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  servants couldn't be
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  SPEAKER_00: trusted and slavery was a better option.
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  SPEAKER_00: England's population had begun to decrease,
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  SPEAKER_00: wages were rising,
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  SPEAKER_00: and it was harder for people to get indentured servants.
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  SPEAKER_00: And the monopoly of the Royal African Company,
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  SPEAKER_00: selling slaves,
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  SPEAKER_00: was broken,
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  which meant more slaves could be sold to the Chesapeake instead
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  of the West Indies.
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  SPEAKER_00: And then this.
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  What were the advantages for planters of tobacco in the
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  Chesapeake to have slaves
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  SPEAKER_00: versus having indentured servants,
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  SPEAKER_00: even though slaves were more expensive?
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  SPEAKER_00: Slaves were slaves for life instead of four to seven years.
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  SPEAKER_00: Slaves were more experienced with agriculture.
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  SPEAKER_00: And they were easier to control.
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  SPEAKER_00: They didn't speak the same language.
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  SPEAKER_00: And that's all I have in the notes.
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  Now this is the first time I'm going to give some commentary on
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  this because this
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  SPEAKER_00: was interesting to me.
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  SPEAKER_00: Because I felt like I remembered more slavery talk during this class.
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  SPEAKER_00: I could have been mistaken.
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  I did take another history class in college,
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  so perhaps I learned it there.
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  But then I found something else in my closet of all these
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  binders of old school
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  SPEAKER_00: stuff that I have for some reason.
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  SPEAKER_00: And it was a study guide that we were given for the test.
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  Now I'm not going to go through all of them specifically
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  because there's just a lot more.
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  But what it did make me realize is that the notes that I have
• 15:38
  just written down and
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  SPEAKER_00: these outlines that were given to us is not everything we learned.
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  SPEAKER_00: Nor did I really expect it to, but these study guides...
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  did give me further insight into what we learned outside of
• 15:54
  just what we wrote down.
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  SPEAKER_00: Because I figured that we did not learn just what we wrote down in this,
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  SPEAKER_00: and that he did lecture to us and we were just supposed to listen,
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  SPEAKER_00: and we also had a textbook to read.
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  For instance,
• 16:08
  in this first unit of the class,
• 16:10
  we had three different study guides.
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  SPEAKER_00: And actually,
• 16:12
  this helped me get some context into exactly how long it took
• 16:17
  us to get through these.
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  SPEAKER_00: This first unit, the final study guide, was due on September 20th.
• 16:27
  Now in America,
• 16:29
  school starts right around Labor Day,
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  which is the first Monday of September.
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  SPEAKER_00: I'm not going to go through and find exactly when this was,
• 16:38
  SPEAKER_00: but suffice it to say,
• 16:39
  SPEAKER_00: this was only about three weeks of content.
• 16:42
  SPEAKER_00: Three weeks of content being about 10 to 15 hours of actual lecture time,
• 16:46
  SPEAKER_00: given the fact that we did games and whatnot.
• 16:49
  SPEAKER_00: But back to the study guide,
• 16:50
  SPEAKER_00: there's this,
• 16:50
  SPEAKER_00: for instance,
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  what are two examples of the rules made for slaves in the 1600s
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  known as the slave codes?
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  SPEAKER_00: And there's a smattering of other slave-related topics.
• 17:01
  SPEAKER_00: But then we have this one,
• 17:03
  SPEAKER_00: which is supplemental reading number one,
• 17:05
  SPEAKER_00: called Black People in a White People's Country by Gary B.
• 17:10
  SPEAKER_00: Nash.
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  SPEAKER_00: And underneath it, we have 18 questions.
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  SPEAKER_00: Like, how specifically did Portuguese slave traders obtain their slaves?
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  SPEAKER_00: Or how did sugar change or transform the African slave trade?
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  Now I'm not going to include these study guides in these AP
• 17:29
  notes sections of the podcast,
• 17:32
  SPEAKER_00: but I did want to give this context,
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  and perhaps I'll use them in the retrospectives as a sort of
• 17:40
  supplemental piece of
• 17:41
  SPEAKER_00: the notes,
• 17:42
  SPEAKER_00: because I did write all of these.
• 17:44
  SPEAKER_00: I did go through these and write down
• 17:47
  all of these notes in the study guides,
• 17:51
  just as I did in the class notes.
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  SPEAKER_00: Now, there's obviously overlap in these.
• 17:56
  SPEAKER_00: It's not one is completely separated from the other.
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  But what it did show me is that there was more to these classes
• 18:02
  than just these notes.
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  SPEAKER_00: So I think that's something to keep in mind.
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  And I will only really use them and discuss them in the
• 18:11
  retrospectives where I
• 18:12
  SPEAKER_00: actually give a grade,
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  SPEAKER_00: if you will,
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  SPEAKER_00: to the class,
• 18:16
  SPEAKER_00: to the teacher.
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  SPEAKER_00: And it's just to show whether or not we actually had enough context.
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  I'll read those along with the notes more carefully in the
• 18:27
  retrospectives because
• 18:28
  it does show that we did learn about slavery more than what's
• 18:31
  in the notes.
• 18:32
  So there might be topics that were covered a little bit better
• 18:34
  than what I might
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  SPEAKER_00: suspect from the notes alone.
• 18:36
  I don't want to belabor this because this is a little bit too
• 18:40
  much inside baseball.
• 18:43
  SPEAKER_00: So without further ado, let's fill in those missing pages.
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  SPEAKER_00: I left the last edition of the slavery story in America stating that the
• 19:06
  SPEAKER_00: institution of slavery by 1676,
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  SPEAKER_00: by those two conflicts that marked the end of that era,
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  SPEAKER_00: that it was fully entrenched in America.
• 19:17
  SPEAKER_00: And that is true.
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  SPEAKER_00: But during this next century of time,
• 19:24
  SPEAKER_00: from 1676 to 1763 and then obviously onwards to 1776,
• 19:33
  SPEAKER_00: this entrenchment only grows further.
• 19:37
  And what happens,
• 19:39
  as Ira Berlin describes in his book Many Thousands Gone,
• 19:43
  is that
• 19:45
  SPEAKER_00: These societies,
• 19:46
  SPEAKER_00: these different colonies,
• 19:49
  SPEAKER_00: they transform from societies with slaves,
• 19:55
  SPEAKER_00: that is,
• 19:56
  SPEAKER_00: societies that have slavery as an institution,
• 20:00
  SPEAKER_00: but it is not the undergirding institution.
• 20:05
  SPEAKER_00: It's not to say that it is not important, but it's not vital.
• 20:09
  SPEAKER_00: to slave societies,
• 20:12
  societies in which slavery is the foundation of the economy and
• 20:19
  of the culture.
• 20:22
  SPEAKER_00: This isn't a one-to-one thing.
• 20:25
  SPEAKER_00: It doesn't happen everywhere at the same time.
• 20:29
  SPEAKER_00: It also doesn't happen everywhere at all, technically.
• 20:33
  SPEAKER_00: Some societies with slaves stay that way.
• 20:37
  SPEAKER_00: Some societies with slaves turn into slave societies and then revert.
• 20:43
  SPEAKER_00: And in one instance in North America that we will discuss,
• 20:47
  SPEAKER_00: a slave society actually reverts to a society with slaves.
• 20:52
  SPEAKER_00: At the same time that this transition happens in societies,
• 20:56
  There's also a generational shift that occurs over the 17th and
• 21:01
  18th centuries.
• 21:03
  SPEAKER_00: Despite the fact that slaves lost most of their bodily autonomy,
• 21:09
  SPEAKER_00: that did not mean,
• 21:10
  as I've stated and will continue to state as this is an
• 21:13
  important facet of this story,
• 21:17
  SPEAKER_00: they did not lose their agency.
• 21:19
  SPEAKER_00: Each generation that we'll talk about,
• 21:21
  SPEAKER_00: starting with charter slaves,
• 21:22
  SPEAKER_00: which actually starts in the previous era.
• 21:25
  SPEAKER_00: I won't belabor that one because I did talk about it,
• 21:28
  SPEAKER_00: but I want to discuss their personality traits,
• 21:33
  SPEAKER_00: if you will.
• 21:35
  SPEAKER_00: to plantation slaves,
• 21:37
  SPEAKER_00: which will be the bulk of this episode,
• 21:41
  SPEAKER_00: to revolutionary slaves,
• 21:43
  SPEAKER_00: which I will be talking about in the next era,
• 21:47
  SPEAKER_00: all had their own experience of slavery.
• 21:50
  SPEAKER_00: It was not a purely progressive story, a purely progressive history,
• 21:55
  SPEAKER_00: And each different generation had different battles to fight.
• 21:58
  It wasn't either going down the road to hell or going down the
• 22:03
  road to redemption in America.
• 22:05
  SPEAKER_00: It was very unique for each of them.
• 22:08
  SPEAKER_00: The charter slaves were the first to come to the Americas.
• 22:13
  SPEAKER_00: These first slaves were Atlantic Creoles,
• 22:16
  which first emerged in the coast of Africa in those European
• 22:22
  trade centers that
• 22:23
  started arriving in the 15th century and continued all the way
• 22:28
  through the 17th century.
• 22:31
  This population emerged as Europeans took African wives and
• 22:35
  mistresses and had
• 22:36
  SPEAKER_00: children with them,
• 22:37
  SPEAKER_00: sometimes by force,
• 22:39
  SPEAKER_00: other times by true affection.
• 22:42
  SPEAKER_00: These children,
• 22:43
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 22:43
  SPEAKER_00: were not accepted by either African nor European cohorts,
• 22:48
  SPEAKER_00: as they were stuck between two cultures,
• 22:50
  and adopting either of them wholly would make them pariahs
• 22:54
  among the others.
• 22:56
  SPEAKER_00: Now these Creoles spoke a lot of languages,
• 23:00
  SPEAKER_00: mainly Portuguese,
• 23:02
  and were able to develop a combination language that was unique
• 23:06
  to them that
• 23:07
  SPEAKER_00: actually spread as the lingua franca in Atlantic trade.
• 23:12
  SPEAKER_00: They specialized in this trade mostly of slaves themselves.
• 23:18
  SPEAKER_00: and acted as the middlemen.
• 23:20
  They usually were able to use their advantage as a middle
• 23:25
  between the African and
• 23:26
  SPEAKER_00: European cultures to increase their political and social standing.
• 23:32
  SPEAKER_00: They also were treated more like servants than slaves themselves.
• 23:37
  SPEAKER_00: They were not denigrated continuously and treated as some human.
• 23:41
  SPEAKER_00: Ira Berlin describes this in Many Thousands Gone.
• 23:45
  SPEAKER_00: Quote,
• 23:46
  SPEAKER_00: Unlike those who would follow them into slavery in the plantation era,
• 23:51
  these first arrivals were not denigrated by diminutives labeled
• 23:55
  with names more
• 23:55
  appropriate to barnyard animals or derided with the
• 23:58
  appellations of ancient notables.
• 24:02
  SPEAKER_00: Instead,
• 24:03
  their names provided concrete evidence that they carried their
• 24:06
  dignity and a good
• 24:07
  SPEAKER_00: deal more with them to the new world.
• 24:09
  SPEAKER_00: End quote.
• 24:11
  Now these first slaves were enslaved due to crime or debt or
• 24:15
  social violations and
• 24:16
  SPEAKER_00: were often sent to the colonies on the margins as a form of exile.
• 24:22
  SPEAKER_00: But once they were enslaved,
• 24:23
  they adopted much of the cultural and religious institutions
• 24:26
  that were in those places,
• 24:28
  SPEAKER_00: depending on where they were,
• 24:30
  SPEAKER_00: in the West Indies or in the Chesapeake,
• 24:33
  to ensure that they were not excluded for their heathenistic
• 24:36
  beliefs and customs.
• 24:38
  Now,
• 24:38
  in short,
• 24:39
  the Creoles were self-confident and willing to adapt to their situation.
• 24:44
  They took any advantage that they possibly could and used their
• 24:49
  knowledge of trade
• 24:53
  SPEAKER_00: and their language to try their best to become as equal as possible,
• 24:57
  SPEAKER_00: which was always an uphill battle,
• 25:00
  SPEAKER_00: a stronger ability to do so than some of the future generations.
• 25:05
  SPEAKER_00: Now, those are the first slaves that came over.
• 25:07
  SPEAKER_00: Those were the ones that we talked about in the previous episode.
• 25:10
  SPEAKER_00: But by the 18th century, by 1700,
• 25:14
  more and more slaves began to originate directly from West
• 25:18
  Africa and had far fewer
• 25:21
  SPEAKER_00: connections to any part of the Atlantic world,
• 25:24
  SPEAKER_00: trade,
• 25:25
  SPEAKER_00: language,
• 25:25
  SPEAKER_00: or anything like that,
• 25:27
  SPEAKER_00: than the Creoles.
• 25:28
  SPEAKER_00: When they arrived in the New World,
• 25:30
  SPEAKER_00: they were given names to show their status as lesser than their masters,
• 25:34
  and the lives of these new slaves was far worse than any of the
• 25:38
  charter generation
• 25:39
  SPEAKER_00: due to the extremely fast expansion of the plantations in the New World.
• 25:47
  SPEAKER_00: After the population of Indians collapsed by the 1700s,
• 25:53
  SPEAKER_00: plantation slavery became synonymous with African slavery.
• 25:58
  SPEAKER_00: On these plantations,
• 26:00
  SPEAKER_00: Berlin notes that they had a,
• 26:01
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 26:02
  SPEAKER_00: peculiar social order,
• 26:04
  which conceded nearly everything to the slave owner and nothing
• 26:07
  to the slave.
• 26:09
  SPEAKER_00: In theory, the planter's rule was complete.
• 26:11
  SPEAKER_00: The great house,
• 26:12
  SPEAKER_00: nestled among manufactories,
• 26:15
  SPEAKER_00: shops,
• 26:15
  SPEAKER_00: barns,
• 26:16
  SPEAKER_00: sheds,
• 26:17
  SPEAKER_00: and various other outbuildings which were called,
• 26:19
  SPEAKER_00: with a nice sense of the plantation's social hierarchy,
• 26:21
  SPEAKER_00: dependencies.
• 26:23
  dominated the landscape and physical and architectural
• 26:26
  embodiment of the planter's hegemony,
• 26:28
  SPEAKER_00: end quote.
• 26:30
  This plantation economy brought a relentless violence and
• 26:35
  hierarchy to slavery.
• 26:38
  SPEAKER_00: much more so than previously.
• 26:41
  SPEAKER_00: It was never in doubt whether a slave should listen to their master.
• 26:46
  SPEAKER_00: That's not what happened.
• 26:49
  But over time,
• 26:50
  it became less of a master-apprentice type of work in these plantations.
• 26:57
  The plantation owner rather became a steward or father figure
• 27:03
  of his estate,
• 27:05
  which eventually morphed into a racial hierarchy that developed
• 27:10
  to rationalize and
• 27:11
  naturalize something that was happening all across the world
• 27:16
  during the Enlightenment.
• 27:18
  SPEAKER_00: This relationship between master and slave, along the
• 27:21
  SPEAKER_00: racial lines.
• 27:23
  These slaves were not part of the trade world and simply
• 27:28
  shipped off for transgressions.
• 27:31
  SPEAKER_00: No,
• 27:31
  these slaves were brought to the plantations after being caught
• 27:35
  by other African
• 27:36
  SPEAKER_00: nations that sought massive profits from trade,
• 27:39
  SPEAKER_00: like the Asante,
• 27:41
  SPEAKER_00: Dahomey,
• 27:42
  SPEAKER_00: and Oyo.
• 27:44
  SPEAKER_00: along what became known as the slave coast, the western coast of Africa.
• 27:52
  Specially commissioned armies and gangs would make their way
• 27:55
  into the interior and
• 27:57
  SPEAKER_00: kidnap or kill anyone that they came across.
• 28:01
  And often,
• 28:02
  these slave catchers would eventually become slaves themselves.
• 28:08
  SPEAKER_00: Once caught,
• 28:10
  SPEAKER_00: these slaves would be bound,
• 28:12
  SPEAKER_00: chained up together,
• 28:14
  SPEAKER_00: and taken to the coast where they would be put on a ship.
• 28:19
  About 25% of these captured died before they were even put on
• 28:24
  the ships from disease,
• 28:26
  SPEAKER_00: hunger,
• 28:27
  SPEAKER_00: or suicide.
• 28:29
  SPEAKER_00: The shortest trip from Africa to America was about three weeks long,
• 28:34
  SPEAKER_00: but often they would last for as much as twice as long.
• 28:39
  SPEAKER_00: The slaves and sailors were exposed to disease,
• 28:42
  SPEAKER_00: smallpox and measles were spread to Africans,
• 28:46
  SPEAKER_00: malaria,
• 28:47
  SPEAKER_00: and yellow fever were spread to the English.
• 28:50
  SPEAKER_00: Berlin describes the journey after they were placed on the ship here,
• 28:54
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 28:55
  Slavers bound for the plantations of the New World stuffed
• 28:58
  their human cargoes
• 28:59
  tight between the creaking boards of vessels specially designed
• 29:03
  to maximize the
• 29:04
  SPEAKER_00: speed of transfer.
• 29:06
  Slaves were forced to wallow in their own excrement and were
• 29:09
  placed at the pleasure
• 29:10
  SPEAKER_00: of the crew.
• 29:11
  SPEAKER_00: Although conditions improved on slave ships over time,
• 29:15
  SPEAKER_00: death stalked these vessels,
• 29:17
  and more than one in ten Africans who boarded them did not
• 29:20
  reach the Americas.
• 29:23
  To prevent uprisings,
• 29:25
  slaves' ships chained the slaves' ankles to wrists below decks.
• 29:30
  SPEAKER_00: Despite this, there were uprisings...
• 29:33
  SPEAKER_00: often with violent ends, though some led to the massacre of the slavers.
• 29:38
  SPEAKER_00: And these slavers were then forced to balance a series of goals.
• 29:43
  They wanted to get as many slaves across the ocean as they
• 29:45
  possibly could,
• 29:46
  SPEAKER_00: ensure the fewest deaths possible,
• 29:50
  SPEAKER_00: and survive themselves.
• 29:53
  The most common flag flown on the ships that were brought these
• 29:55
  slaves over was the Union Jack.
• 29:59
  SPEAKER_00: the British brought slaves not only to their own colonies,
• 30:02
  SPEAKER_00: but half of them were actually split between the French and the Spanish.
• 30:06
  The West Indies absorbed nearly all of them,
• 30:09
  but that rate began to shrink.
• 30:13
  SPEAKER_00: In the 17th century,
• 30:15
  SPEAKER_00: the West Indies absorbed 96% of the slaves,
• 30:19
  SPEAKER_00: but as Carolina and the Chesapeake expanded their slave population,
• 30:23
  SPEAKER_00: that dropped to about 80%.
• 30:26
  SPEAKER_00: After arriving,
• 30:27
  the slavers would often make the slaves look like they hadn't
• 30:30
  been on a torturous journey.
• 30:32
  SPEAKER_00: In his book,
• 30:33
  SPEAKER_00: American Colonies,
• 30:35
  SPEAKER_00: Alan Taylor describes what this looked like at these marketplaces.
• 30:43
  After weeks and even months at sea,
• 30:45
  the ships reached their colonial destination.
• 30:47
  The captains conducted the sails either by inviting buyers on
• 30:50
  board ship or by
• 30:52
  SPEAKER_00: landing the slaves for auction by land.
• 30:55
  To enhance the slaves' appearance and price,
• 30:57
  they cleaned,
• 30:58
  shaved,
• 30:58
  and greased with palm oil.
• 31:00
  SPEAKER_00: To hide the signs of bleeding dysentery,
• 31:02
  some cunning captains had their surgeons stop the anus of each
• 31:05
  slave with oakum.
• 31:06
  The younger and healthier slaves,
• 31:08
  especially men,
• 31:09
  sold first and at the best prices.
• 31:12
  Older,
• 31:12
  weaker,
• 31:13
  and sicker slaves,
• 31:14
  especially females,
• 31:16
  were harder and slower to sell.
• 31:17
  As a rule,
• 31:18
  neither sellers nor purchasers made an effort to keep slave
• 31:21
  families together.
• 31:23
  SPEAKER_00: Indeed,
• 31:24
  buyers preferred to break up families and ethnic groups to
• 31:27
  discourage the trust and
• 31:28
  SPEAKER_00: communication that would facilitate plots to run away or rebel."
• 31:35
  SPEAKER_00: This slave-catching operation was
• 31:39
  would account for the bulk of what would become 1.5 million
• 31:45
  slaves being brought
• 31:48
  SPEAKER_00: into the colonies during the 18th century.
• 31:52
  SPEAKER_00: Now,
• 31:52
  SPEAKER_00: not all of these came during this exact era,
• 31:56
  SPEAKER_00: but the number is important because during the same period of time,
• 32:02
  SPEAKER_00: the number of slaves that arrive is triple.
• 32:05
  SPEAKER_00: the free immigrants.
• 32:07
  SPEAKER_00: By the revolution,
• 32:09
  SPEAKER_00: only about 1% of these slaves had been freed,
• 32:14
  SPEAKER_00: and the mass enslavement in Africa,
• 32:17
  SPEAKER_00: in West Africa,
• 32:19
  SPEAKER_00: decimated the population,
• 32:21
  SPEAKER_00: dropping it by about 20% over the century.
• 32:25
  Now the West Indies,
• 32:26
  where most of these slaves went,
• 32:29
  was the worst location for them to go.
• 32:33
  The rise of sugar as a staple in the English diet and a
• 32:38
  necessity on ships in the
• 32:39
  form of rum had a pronounced impact on the slave trade in the
• 32:45
  West Indies.
• 32:46
  SPEAKER_00: Before 1710,
• 32:49
  SPEAKER_00: Barbados was the largest supplier of sugar,
• 32:53
  SPEAKER_00: but by 1720 that began to be taken over by the Leeward Islands,
• 32:57
  SPEAKER_00: St.
• 32:57
  SPEAKER_00: Kitts and Nevis, Antigua,
• 33:02
  SPEAKER_00: The slave codes were especially draconian.
• 33:05
  SPEAKER_00: Led by drivers,
• 33:06
  gangs of slaves would be driven through sugarcane fields and
• 33:10
  whipped if they laid behind.
• 33:12
  SPEAKER_00: Intense violence was required to enforce this gruesome schedule,
• 33:16
  SPEAKER_00: and masters would punish their slaves harshly,
• 33:19
  SPEAKER_00: often to death,
• 33:21
  SPEAKER_00: and not face any punishment.
• 33:22
  Some masters did realize that pure brutality did not get their
• 33:26
  desired outcome,
• 33:28
  SPEAKER_00: so they would give some concessions and responsibilities to slaves.
• 33:32
  The most able and strongest were often given better food and
• 33:34
  clothing and acted as foremen.
• 33:37
  SPEAKER_00: To most masters, this was seen as necessary for stability.
• 33:42
  However,
• 33:42
  rebellion still occurred,
• 33:44
  and we'll talk about more of this later in the next episode.
• 33:48
  SPEAKER_00: The West Indies at this point were,
• 33:51
  SPEAKER_00: and had been for probably a century,
• 33:55
  SPEAKER_00: distinctly slave societies.
• 33:58
  SPEAKER_00: And I think it's important to put some numbers...
• 34:01
  SPEAKER_00: to this phenomenon.
• 34:03
  SPEAKER_00: I'm going to be focusing on the French here,
• 34:05
  but this was not unique to them as the English and Spanish were
• 34:10
  just as brutal.
• 34:12
  SPEAKER_00: W.J.
• 34:12
  SPEAKER_00: Eccles in the French in North America states some of these numbers.
• 34:17
  SPEAKER_00: Quote,
• 34:18
  SPEAKER_00: by 1687,
• 34:19
  SPEAKER_00: when an official census was taken,
• 34:21
  SPEAKER_00: the population of the French islands was 47,312.
• 34:26
  SPEAKER_00: Of that number,
• 34:26
  SPEAKER_00: 18,888 were whites,
• 34:30
  SPEAKER_00: approximately 27,000 slaves,
• 34:32
  SPEAKER_00: and 1,484 freed blacks or mulattoes.
• 34:36
  SPEAKER_00: Fifty years later,
• 34:37
  SPEAKER_00: the population was 20,000 whites,
• 34:39
  SPEAKER_00: a few more than 20,000 freed blacks and mulattoes,
• 34:42
  SPEAKER_00: and a quarter million slaves.
• 34:44
  SPEAKER_00: The white population remained stable, but the slaves increased tenfold.
• 34:49
  During those intervening years,
• 34:50
  25,000 to 30,000 slaves a year were brought to the islands.
• 34:54
  SPEAKER_00: more than one and a quarter million all told, end quote.
• 34:58
  SPEAKER_00: In total, the Caribbean really just acted as a massive African graveyard.
• 35:06
  In an attempt to prevent slave revolts,
• 35:08
  the French government,
• 35:09
  namely King Louis XIV,
• 35:12
  SPEAKER_00: created the Code Noir.
• 35:14
  These codes prevented family breakups before the children
• 35:16
  reached puberty and
• 35:18
  SPEAKER_00: detailed the working conditions that must be kept,
• 35:20
  SPEAKER_00: enforced conversion of the slaves to Christianity,
• 35:23
  SPEAKER_00: and proclaimed that slaves could not be killed without a trial.
• 35:27
  SPEAKER_00: This did more to protect the masters than the slaves in the end,
• 35:30
  SPEAKER_00: but compared to other slave codes that we'll see,
• 35:33
  SPEAKER_00: they are very humane.
• 35:35
  Children of slaves and their masters named mulattoes were free
• 35:38
  under these codes
• 35:39
  SPEAKER_00: and were able to work for themselves as artisans,
• 35:42
  SPEAKER_00: shop owners,
• 35:43
  SPEAKER_00: and even plantation overseers.
• 35:45
  SPEAKER_00: And that's where we see that increase in population in the islands.
• 35:49
  SPEAKER_00: Many even began to adopt the same cultural values,
• 35:52
  SPEAKER_00: like contempt for slaves,
• 35:54
  SPEAKER_00: as their white counterparts.
• 35:56
  SPEAKER_00: The social hierarchy on the islands was rigid.
• 35:59
  SPEAKER_00: The government employees were at the top.
• 36:01
  SPEAKER_00: Then came the large planters, then the smaller planters.
• 36:04
  These divisions came from the number of slaves owned and the
• 36:08
  ability to outlast a bad crop.
• 36:11
  SPEAKER_00: It was mostly a class distinction,
• 36:13
  SPEAKER_00: though poorer whites used their race to ensure a feeling of superiority,
• 36:18
  SPEAKER_00: despite the dire economic position.
• 36:21
  SPEAKER_00: But in the mainland,
• 36:23
  SPEAKER_00: as we go north,
• 36:24
  SPEAKER_00: as we start our way north,
• 36:26
  SPEAKER_00: we'll start to see that transition over time.
• 36:29
  SPEAKER_00: It's faster in some places, slower in others.
• 36:33
  SPEAKER_00: But it's important to remember that not all of these places,
• 36:36
  SPEAKER_00: not all of these colonies,
• 36:37
  SPEAKER_00: looked like the West Indies.
• 36:39
  SPEAKER_00: They were not all pure plantation colonies to start with.
• 36:43
  And there's some nuance to how slaves were treated in these
• 36:48
  different places and
• 36:50
  SPEAKER_00: what responsibilities they were given and what freedoms,
• 36:55
  SPEAKER_00: as small as they may have been,
• 36:56
  SPEAKER_00: that they were given as well.
• 37:00
  SPEAKER_00: All of the mainland colonies,
• 37:03
  SPEAKER_00: whether they were English,
• 37:04
  SPEAKER_00: French,
• 37:05
  SPEAKER_00: or Spanish,
• 37:06
  SPEAKER_00: were not slave societies necessarily to begin with,
• 37:10
  SPEAKER_00: and they were also more dynamic.
• 37:12
  They had that change between slave societies and society with
• 37:16
  slaves either one way
• 37:17
  SPEAKER_00: or the other.
• 37:18
  SPEAKER_00: So I'm going to start in the south and move north,
• 37:21
  SPEAKER_00: and we're actually going to start in a non-English colony,
• 37:26
  SPEAKER_00: the colony of Louisiana.
• 37:29
  This ramshackle colony in the southern part of the North
• 37:33
  American continent had its
• 37:36
  SPEAKER_00: first slaves arrive just as the 17th century drew to a close.
• 37:44
  SPEAKER_00: These were of the Creole generation.
• 37:47
  SPEAKER_00: These slaves in Louisiana understood the laws,
• 37:50
  SPEAKER_00: the languages,
• 37:51
  SPEAKER_00: and the customs of the Atlantic world,
• 37:53
  so they asserted their will to ensure their rights were not
• 37:56
  infringed upon.
• 37:58
  SPEAKER_00: To be sure,
• 37:59
  the Code Noir was a blow to this as it prevented slaves from
• 38:02
  selling their own time
• 38:04
  SPEAKER_00: and gave far more deference to the owners.
• 38:07
  SPEAKER_00: More slaves arrived in the early 1700s,
• 38:09
  SPEAKER_00: with 450 arriving in 1719 to the new location of Louisiana.
• 38:10
  SPEAKER_00: By 1730, between 6,000 and 8,000 slaves were brought to the colony.
• 38:13
  SPEAKER_00: This number differs between sorcerers.
• 38:14
  SPEAKER_00: However, by 1739, only 4,000 blacks lived there.
• 38:31
  SPEAKER_00: This new labor supply,
• 38:32
  SPEAKER_00: along with the yearly shipment of food to the colony,
• 38:36
  SPEAKER_00: allowed the colonists to export goods,
• 38:38
  SPEAKER_00: though never enough to recoup the costs to the company.
• 38:43
  SPEAKER_00: These new imports replaced nearly all the free labor in Louisiana,
• 38:47
  SPEAKER_00: and in 1728,
• 38:48
  SPEAKER_00: with the cessation of Indian slavery,
• 38:51
  SPEAKER_00: black slaves became an overwhelming source of labor.
• 38:55
  SPEAKER_00: This rapid influx also led to a black majority by 1731.
• 39:01
  SPEAKER_00: Compared to other colonies,
• 39:02
  SPEAKER_00: the economy in Louisiana was fairly diverse,
• 39:06
  but it began its transition to a more agricultural focus
• 39:12
  starting in 1720.
• 39:14
  SPEAKER_00: These plantations were harsh places,
• 39:17
  so slaves often escaped into the swamps and forests and created
• 39:21
  maroon villages.
• 39:22
  SPEAKER_00: They traded stolen goods with the plantation slaves and nearby Indians.
• 39:27
  The ever-increasing need for more land led to conflicts with
• 39:30
  the nearby natives
• 39:31
  SPEAKER_00: like the Natchez,
• 39:33
  SPEAKER_00: which led to a revolt in 1729.
• 39:36
  SPEAKER_00: Berlin lays out this entire event,
• 39:38
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 39:39
  SPEAKER_00: In the fall of 1729,
• 39:40
  SPEAKER_00: the fuming discontent broke its boundaries in deadly revolution.
• 39:46
  SPEAKER_00: In November,
• 39:47
  SPEAKER_00: Natchez Indians,
• 39:48
  pushed to the brink by the expanding plantation economy and
• 39:51
  fearful for their own enslavement,
• 39:53
  SPEAKER_00: joined with newly arrived slaves to massacre over 200 French settlers,
• 39:58
  SPEAKER_00: more than 10% of the European population of Louisiana.
• 40:03
  SPEAKER_00: The governor of Louisiana would eventually turn around and attack back
• 40:10
  SPEAKER_00: though not to the level of success that he would hope.
• 40:13
  SPEAKER_00: By 1731 there was peace,
• 40:15
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 40:16
  and all of the former slaves that escaped to help the Natchez
• 40:20
  Indians were returned.
• 40:22
  The fate that befell these slaves that were returned was far
• 40:26
  worse than if they had
• 40:28
  SPEAKER_00: not revolted at all.
• 40:31
  SPEAKER_00: Quoting Berlin again,
• 40:32
  eager to inspire a quote-unquote new horror of the savages
• 40:37
  among the slaves,
• 40:39
  French officials turned many of these returned Black slaves
• 40:42
  over to the Choctaws,
• 40:44
  SPEAKER_00: who promptly burned them at the stake with an appropriate,
• 40:46
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 40:47
  SPEAKER_00: degree of cruelty,
• 40:49
  SPEAKER_00: end quote.
• 40:51
  SPEAKER_00: After 1731 and the end of the Natchez Revolt,
• 40:55
  SPEAKER_00: no more slaves directly from Africa arrived in Louisiana,
• 40:59
  SPEAKER_00: barring a single slave ship,
• 41:02
  SPEAKER_00: until it was taken over by the Spanish in 1763.
• 41:07
  SPEAKER_00: The end of imports led to a creolization of the slave population,
• 41:11
  SPEAKER_00: the moderation of treatment of slaves,
• 41:15
  SPEAKER_00: and allowance of families.
• 41:16
  SPEAKER_00: A new governor proposed slave owners provide more sufficient food,
• 41:21
  SPEAKER_00: clothing, and less harsh treatment.
• 41:24
  SPEAKER_00: The black population,
• 41:25
  SPEAKER_00: mostly enslaved,
• 41:27
  outnumbered the whites by about 1.5 to 1 and would stay the
• 41:31
  same until the Spanish takeover.
• 41:34
  This colony remained much more urban than many of the other
• 41:38
  colonies that we will
• 41:39
  SPEAKER_00: get to to the north,
• 41:41
  SPEAKER_00: though this urban environment was much like what we will see later.
• 41:45
  SPEAKER_00: Slaves were given far more freedom generally,
• 41:47
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 41:48
  SPEAKER_00: and lumbermen carried axes,
• 41:50
  SPEAKER_00: herdsmen carried guns,
• 41:52
  SPEAKER_00: and many were allowed horses.
• 41:54
  The general lack of a staple crop allowed the slaves to become
• 41:58
  far more skilled in
• 41:59
  SPEAKER_00: a variety of trades,
• 42:01
  SPEAKER_00: and once again were able to sell their time and wares.
• 42:04
  Some went so far as to lay claim on small portions of land at
• 42:09
  the edge of their owners' estates.
• 42:11
  In the end,
• 42:12
  there existed a small but very vibrant independent slave economy.
• 42:17
  There were still laws in the books that were meant to curtail
• 42:20
  these freedoms,
• 42:21
  SPEAKER_00: but they were often ignored,
• 42:22
  SPEAKER_00: and custom often overrode the laws.
• 42:26
  SPEAKER_00: And in Louisiana,
• 42:29
  SPEAKER_00: what we see is not what we will see in much of the English colonies,
• 42:35
  SPEAKER_00: which is a society with slaves turning into a slave society.
• 42:40
  SPEAKER_00: Rather, this is the opposite.
• 42:42
  SPEAKER_00: A slave society begins to turn into a society with slaves.
• 42:49
  SPEAKER_00: Now,
• 42:49
  SPEAKER_00: by the end of this era,
• 42:51
  SPEAKER_00: near 1763,
• 42:51
  SPEAKER_00: there was an attempt to create a new staple crop,
• 42:56
  SPEAKER_00: an indigo,
• 42:58
  SPEAKER_00: though the war that we will get to at the end of this season,
• 43:01
  SPEAKER_00: the French and Indian War,
• 43:04
  SPEAKER_00: stopped this from actually taking hold.
• 43:07
  SPEAKER_00: And after the Spanish took over,
• 43:09
  SPEAKER_00: the French planters and Spanish government fought endlessly,
• 43:16
  SPEAKER_00: so the slave population largely was overlooked.
• 43:21
  SPEAKER_00: Now we haven't touched the Spanish yet,
• 43:24
  though the Spanish by this point are on the downturn of their
• 43:28
  imperial might.
• 43:30
  SPEAKER_00: And most of their empire lays south of the Rio Grande,
• 43:36
  SPEAKER_00: so it has been mostly ignored thus far,
• 43:40
  SPEAKER_00: except for the very first episode on colonization,
• 43:43
  SPEAKER_00: where I did touch on the slave relations.
• 43:47
  SPEAKER_00: But on the mainland,
• 43:50
  SPEAKER_00: East of Louisiana,
• 43:52
  SPEAKER_00: we have the colony of La Florida,
• 43:55
  SPEAKER_00: which is a similarly ramshackle colony compared to the English,
• 44:01
  SPEAKER_00: for sure,
• 44:02
  SPEAKER_00: with a singular city that makes up most of the population in St.
• 44:08
  SPEAKER_00: Augustine.
• 44:10
  SPEAKER_00: Fort Moes, a fort built near St.
• 44:13
  SPEAKER_00: Augustine,
• 44:13
  SPEAKER_00: became a haven for escaped slaves,
• 44:17
  SPEAKER_00: mostly from the Carolinas and eventually Georgia,
• 44:21
  SPEAKER_00: and a base of operations for any attack to the north.
• 44:25
  It was relentlessly attacked in every single colonial war by
• 44:29
  the English as a way
• 44:30
  SPEAKER_00: to drive the Spanish completely off of the eastern seaboard.
• 44:35
  SPEAKER_00: And it held through most until the end of the French and Indian War.
• 44:41
  SPEAKER_00: In this colony,
• 44:41
  SPEAKER_00: free blacks,
• 44:42
  SPEAKER_00: not slaves,
• 44:44
  SPEAKER_00: had a very large stake in the economy and acted as laborers,
• 44:48
  SPEAKER_00: artisans,
• 44:49
  SPEAKER_00: sailors,
• 44:50
  SPEAKER_00: soldiers,
• 44:50
  SPEAKER_00: and servants.
• 44:51
  They owned property and would sometimes work to get others out
• 44:56
  of bondage.
• 44:58
  SPEAKER_00: They were part of the church, got married, and baptized their children.
• 45:02
  In short,
• 45:03
  they were not much different than the Europeans that lived there.
• 45:07
  By 1746,
• 45:09
  about a quarter of the population,
• 45:11
  about 350 people,
• 45:12
  were free blacks.
• 45:15
  SPEAKER_00: Fort Moes will become extremely vital later on,
• 45:20
  SPEAKER_00: and especially in the next episode,
• 45:22
  SPEAKER_00: Florida will become vital for a key slave revolt.
• 45:27
  SPEAKER_00: But in the end,
• 45:28
  SPEAKER_00: it was a small colony that didn't have a lot of cultural,
• 45:31
  SPEAKER_00: political,
• 45:31
  SPEAKER_00: or military influence in the end.
• 45:35
  SPEAKER_00: Now moving into the English colonies,
• 45:37
  SPEAKER_00: we get into the southern colonies of Georgia,
• 45:41
  SPEAKER_00: South,
• 45:42
  SPEAKER_00: and North Carolina.
• 45:43
  SPEAKER_00: When we start this era,
• 45:44
  SPEAKER_00: North and South Carolina are combined,
• 45:46
  SPEAKER_00: so we will just keep this as a singular entity,
• 45:52
  SPEAKER_00: because even after North and South Carolina separate,
• 45:57
  SPEAKER_00: South Carolina is a lot more dynamic than North Carolina.
• 46:00
  SPEAKER_00: In the early stages of colonization in Carolina,
• 46:04
  Creoles were actually able to use their polyglotism and
• 46:08
  understanding of their
• 46:08
  power relationships with the whites to prevent the harshest
• 46:12
  treatment that came
• 46:13
  SPEAKER_00: with the racial domination of chattel slavery from impacting them.
• 46:18
  SPEAKER_00: Between first settling and the Yamasee War,
• 46:22
  SPEAKER_00: between roughly 1670 and 1715,
• 46:27
  SPEAKER_00: black slaves were able to win their freedom through military service.
• 46:31
  SPEAKER_00: This put a strain on
• 46:33
  SPEAKER_00: On slave owners,
• 46:34
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 46:34
  as they were worried continuously about open revolt and even
• 46:38
  training those slaves
• 46:40
  SPEAKER_00: who would be able to revolt.
• 46:42
  SPEAKER_00: But slaves were most often not actually wanting open revolt.
• 46:45
  They were more happy to escape at all and just leave into the
• 46:50
  swampy backcountry
• 46:51
  SPEAKER_00: where they would create maroon colonies,
• 46:54
  SPEAKER_00: colonies of slaves and even laborers and Indians.
• 46:58
  where they remained free from the prying eyes of the
• 47:01
  plantations so long as they
• 47:03
  SPEAKER_00: kept to themselves with trade and their labor.
• 47:07
  SPEAKER_00: Over 40% of the slaves that were brought to North America,
• 47:11
  SPEAKER_00: the mainland colonies,
• 47:13
  SPEAKER_00: passed through South Carolina,
• 47:14
  SPEAKER_00: namely Charlestown.
• 47:16
  SPEAKER_00: As profits rose from staple crops like rice and indigo,
• 47:21
  SPEAKER_00: the amount of slaves purchased in Charlestown skyrocketed,
• 47:24
  SPEAKER_00: from just several at a time to dozens at a time.
• 47:29
  By 1720,
• 47:31
  rice made up nearly half of the export profits in South Carolina.
• 47:37
  SPEAKER_00: This impacted the labor needs in the fields,
• 47:39
  SPEAKER_00: but also in the creation of earthworks,
• 47:42
  as miles of canals cut through the low country to provide the
• 47:46
  water necessary to
• 47:48
  SPEAKER_00: flood the rice fields.
• 47:50
  SPEAKER_00: These combined factors only drove the slave population even higher.
• 47:55
  And by 1760,
• 47:56
  nearly every parish in South Carolina was at least 60% black.
• 48:03
  SPEAKER_00: In Georgia,
• 48:04
  SPEAKER_00: after the initial slavery ban ended in the 1750s,
• 48:09
  SPEAKER_00: they quickly began to match the numbers of South Carolina.
• 48:12
  SPEAKER_00: This wouldn't actually fully happen until the beginning of the 1800s,
• 48:17
  SPEAKER_00: But within 20 years, there were 15,000 slaves in Georgia.
• 48:22
  SPEAKER_00: As I said,
• 48:23
  SPEAKER_00: Charlestown acted as the staging area for the slave trade,
• 48:29
  SPEAKER_00: where planters would purchase these men,
• 48:30
  SPEAKER_00: women,
• 48:31
  SPEAKER_00: and children like cattle.
• 48:34
  And like cattle,
• 48:36
  the buyers of slaves would often have preferences about who
• 48:40
  they wanted.
• 48:42
  SPEAKER_00: I stated earlier that adult and teenage males were sought after.
• 48:47
  SPEAKER_00: But Berlin goes further, quote...
• 48:50
  Both buyers and sellers dwelled upon the regional and national
• 48:53
  origins of their
• 48:54
  SPEAKER_00: human merchandise,
• 48:55
  SPEAKER_00: disparaging slaves from the bite of Biafra or the so-called Calabars.
• 49:00
  Some planters based their choices on long experience and a
• 49:04
  considered understanding
• 49:05
  SPEAKER_00: of the physical and social character of various African nations.
• 49:10
  Knowing that some West Africans cultivated rice,
• 49:13
  slave owners naturally specified them.
• 49:15
  SPEAKER_00: Others based their preference on shallow ethnic stereotypes.
• 49:19
  SPEAKER_00: Sometimes planters preferred just those slaves they did not get,
• 49:22
  perhaps because all Africans made unsatisfactory slaves and the
• 49:26
  unobtainable ones
• 49:27
  SPEAKER_00: looked better at a distance.
• 49:31
  SPEAKER_00: Despite the desecration of the slaves and the separation upon arrival,
• 49:37
  SPEAKER_00: African culture was actually able to live on in South Carolina.
• 49:42
  The sheer numbers of slaves in the colony likely allowed tribe
• 49:46
  members to work
• 49:47
  SPEAKER_00: alongside each other on plantations,
• 49:50
  SPEAKER_00: and they rarely encountered their masters.
• 49:52
  This allowed the slaves to portray a limited amount of power by
• 49:56
  coordinating
• 49:57
  SPEAKER_00: disruptions in production.
• 49:59
  Slaves were allowed to leave the fields in the early afternoon
• 50:02
  to tend their own gardens,
• 50:04
  and overseers were often unwilling to press the slaves too hard
• 50:08
  for risk of mutiny
• 50:09
  SPEAKER_00: or further protest.
• 50:11
  SPEAKER_00: Often, the planters took a hands-off approach to avoid such conflict.
• 50:16
  SPEAKER_00: They would use drivers,
• 50:17
  SPEAKER_00: slaves chosen to leave the pack to dole out work,
• 50:21
  SPEAKER_00: overseers were used to manage the drivers,
• 50:24
  SPEAKER_00: and stewards were used to manage the ports.
• 50:27
  SPEAKER_00: Slaves had very well-defined tasks to do each day,
• 50:30
  SPEAKER_00: so many rows sowed or canals cleared,
• 50:33
  SPEAKER_00: which allowed them that extra time,
• 50:35
  SPEAKER_00: often at the end of the day.
• 50:37
  The drivers acted as middlemen between slaves and masters and
• 50:41
  actually cultivated a
• 50:42
  SPEAKER_00: hierarchy which they would then introduce to new slaves.
• 50:46
  SPEAKER_00: And as a result,
• 50:47
  this hierarchy and this separation allowed for a new
• 50:52
  Afro-American culture to begin
• 50:54
  SPEAKER_00: to emerge.
• 50:55
  There arose a language and new cultural practices that were
• 51:01
  brought in from Africa
• 51:03
  SPEAKER_00: like witchcraft,
• 51:05
  SPEAKER_00: not the witchcraft of Salem.
• 51:08
  SPEAKER_00: but similar types of black and white magic.
• 51:13
  The continuous influx of Africans into the low country only
• 51:16
  drove this cultural
• 51:17
  SPEAKER_00: creation even further.
• 51:19
  SPEAKER_00: There were many attempts to Christianize slaves,
• 51:22
  though this new culture with its religious rites and rituals
• 51:27
  and their relative
• 51:28
  freedom in the fields made it very difficult for preachers to
• 51:33
  convert any slaves.
• 51:35
  SPEAKER_00: But it was these Christians that actually started
• 51:39
  SPEAKER_00: the very small, by the end of this era, very small abolition movement.
• 51:44
  But this abolition movement within the Christians blocked them
• 51:48
  from actually
• 51:49
  SPEAKER_00: reaching slaves,
• 51:50
  SPEAKER_00: as planters did not want those ideas to reach their slaves.
• 51:55
  SPEAKER_00: The slaves in the cities had a very different experience.
• 52:00
  Urban slaves did not enjoy the same level of separation as
• 52:04
  their rural counterparts.
• 52:06
  SPEAKER_00: Most were women who worked in the house cooking and cleaning.
• 52:10
  SPEAKER_00: Outside of the house, they worked as seamstresses or weavers.
• 52:15
  They also did the shopping and even sold their own products
• 52:18
  that they made.
• 52:19
  The men worked as skilled craftsmen,
• 52:22
  cartmen,
• 52:23
  or worked at the ports alongside the free whites.
• 52:27
  SPEAKER_00: Some were even able to become skilled artisans,
• 52:29
  SPEAKER_00: most often in the port trades like shipwrights and rope makers.
• 52:35
  SPEAKER_00: And among these artisans,
• 52:36
  SPEAKER_00: the free artisans,
• 52:37
  there was no different scene in the ability between black and
• 52:41
  white artisans.
• 52:42
  The master craftsman and the apprentices and the slaves would
• 52:45
  all work together.
• 52:47
  SPEAKER_00: Despite the proximity,
• 52:48
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 52:48
  the ability to sell their own time and goods allowed these
• 52:51
  slaves to become even
• 52:52
  SPEAKER_00: more wealthy than those in the Chesapeake,
• 52:55
  SPEAKER_00: as we'll see.
• 52:57
  SPEAKER_00: And they were even able to enjoy near freedom altogether.
• 53:02
  But the stark difference between the rural and urban slaves was
• 53:05
  most clear in their dress.
• 53:07
  And in the end,
• 53:08
  urban slaves wanted nothing to do with low country plantation slaves.
• 53:12
  Berlin lays out what this distinction between urban and rural
• 53:16
  slaves looked like.
• 53:19
  SPEAKER_00: Perhaps no aspect of their behavior was as obvious,
• 53:22
  SPEAKER_00: and hence as galling,
• 53:23
  SPEAKER_00: to city-bound planters as the slaves' elaborate dress.
• 53:27
  While plantation slaves' men and women were stripped to the
• 53:29
  waist wearing no more
• 53:30
  SPEAKER_00: than loincloths,
• 53:31
  SPEAKER_00: thereby confirming the white man's image of savagery,
• 53:35
  urban slaves appropriated their owners' tastes for fine clothes
• 53:39
  and often the
• 53:39
  SPEAKER_00: garments themselves.
• 53:41
  SPEAKER_00: Tooling around Charlestown in their finery,
• 53:43
  SPEAKER_00: displaying pocket watches,
• 53:45
  SPEAKER_00: sporting powdered wigs,
• 53:46
  there roused the ire of countless self-proclaimed ladies and
• 53:50
  gentlemen who viewed
• 53:51
  the slaves' fine dress as a challenge to their exclusive claim
• 53:55
  to the symbols of civilization.
• 53:57
  SPEAKER_00: End quote.
• 53:59
  SPEAKER_00: Urban slaves were often housed in spare rooms or lofts of homes,
• 54:04
  but the plantations had a vast network of streets and squares
• 54:08
  that were all in
• 54:08
  SPEAKER_00: clear view of the main house.
• 54:11
  These often looked like separate villages from the plantation
• 54:13
  rather than a piece of it.
• 54:15
  SPEAKER_00: In these villages,
• 54:16
  SPEAKER_00: slaves were able to cobble together a semblance of a family life,
• 54:20
  and planters even began to understand this necessity and would
• 54:25
  purchase family
• 54:26
  SPEAKER_00: units rather than separating them.
• 54:29
  Slaves often had their own gardens and fowl and were even able
• 54:33
  to cultivate rice of
• 54:34
  SPEAKER_00: their own and sell at markets for themselves.
• 54:38
  Some planters even went so far as to protect the property that
• 54:41
  slaves owned,
• 54:43
  and they would either buy it from the slave or transfer it with
• 54:46
  them if they sold
• 54:47
  SPEAKER_00: that slave to another planter.
• 54:50
  Now I don't want this to paint over the picture that you have
• 54:53
  in your mind of
• 54:54
  SPEAKER_00: slavery because slavery was still gruesome.
• 54:58
  SPEAKER_00: They were dressed and ate terribly,
• 55:01
  SPEAKER_00: were wracked with disease,
• 55:02
  though they were often treated by the planters to protect their investment.
• 55:07
  SPEAKER_00: and they worked very dangerous jobs.
• 55:10
  New slaves were often beat harshly for any small mistakes made
• 55:14
  in the cultivation
• 55:15
  SPEAKER_00: and production process they were unfamiliar with.
• 55:18
  SPEAKER_00: Death caused by these punishments were not seen as murder.
• 55:23
  The conditions also did not allow for a natural increase in the
• 55:29
  slave population to occur.
• 55:31
  There was low birth rates because those families were few and
• 55:33
  far between,
• 55:34
  SPEAKER_00: and the death rate was so high that the birth rate could not keep up.
• 55:40
  SPEAKER_00: Despite this,
• 55:40
  because Charlestown was the center of the slave trade in the
• 55:44
  North American colonies,
• 55:46
  SPEAKER_00: the slave population rose.
• 55:49
  SPEAKER_00: And by the revolution,
• 55:51
  SPEAKER_00: by the end of this era,
• 55:53
  SPEAKER_00: there were about 100,000 slaves in the Lowcountry.
• 55:58
  Now we move north to a place where there was actually three
• 56:03
  times as many by this point.
• 56:06
  But we'll see that it's a little bit different in Virginia and
• 56:09
  the rest of the Chesapeake.
• 56:10
  Immediately after Bacon's Rebellion in 1676,
• 56:16
  with the inclusion of slaves in the rebel army,
• 56:22
  alongside Bacon and a lot of the other servants that came along
• 56:26
  with that,
• 56:28
  new slave codes were introduced to ensure African slavery was
• 56:32
  codified and slavery
• 56:35
  SPEAKER_00: became a hereditary status in Virginia.
• 56:40
  SPEAKER_00: Slavery boomed as planters moved west and white servants were replaced.
• 56:45
  SPEAKER_00: And over the next century,
• 56:47
  SPEAKER_00: during this era,
• 56:47
  the slave population grew as a proportion of the total until it
• 56:52
  was nearly half of
• 56:53
  SPEAKER_00: the total population.
• 56:55
  SPEAKER_00: And like in Carolina,
• 56:57
  the first slaves were the Creole slaves that were unwilling to
• 57:01
  accept their
• 57:02
  SPEAKER_00: subservient role that they were given in society.
• 57:05
  SPEAKER_00: and were quick to find any leverage to escape it.
• 57:08
  SPEAKER_00: They would often exchange their time for money,
• 57:13
  SPEAKER_00: and like what would happen on the plantations in Carolina,
• 57:15
  SPEAKER_00: often had their own gardens,
• 57:17
  SPEAKER_00: their own animals,
• 57:18
  SPEAKER_00: hunted and fished on their own,
• 57:20
  SPEAKER_00: and even had small manufactories of their own.
• 57:23
  SPEAKER_00: But over time, the slave population would change.
• 57:26
  SPEAKER_00: It would change from the Creoles to coming from Africa directly.
• 57:31
  SPEAKER_00: By 1700, this was about 90% of the slave population.
• 57:36
  SPEAKER_00: Like in Carolina,
• 57:37
  slaves were deprived of any common human decency as soon as
• 57:40
  they got off the ships.
• 57:42
  SPEAKER_00: They were renamed to remove any ties to Africa.
• 57:45
  SPEAKER_00: Conditions were terrible on the plantations and very little
• 57:48
  SPEAKER_00: was done to remedy that.
• 57:51
  New laws in 1705 and 1723 in Virginia denied slaves the right
• 57:57
  to free travel
• 57:58
  without permission and were banned from meeting in groups of
• 58:01
  more than four.
• 58:02
  SPEAKER_00: These codes further enshrined the master's total control of the slaves,
• 58:07
  SPEAKER_00: even to the point of murder,
• 58:08
  SPEAKER_00: and in the end,
• 58:10
  SPEAKER_00: planters were treated and saw themselves as lords of a small empire,
• 58:15
  SPEAKER_00: of which these slaves were their peasants.
• 58:19
  SPEAKER_00: As the estates grew,
• 58:20
  SPEAKER_00: the planters would eventually stop interacting with the slaves,
• 58:23
  SPEAKER_00: just like in Carolina,
• 58:25
  SPEAKER_00: and would hire overseers,
• 58:26
  SPEAKER_00: usually slaves,
• 58:28
  SPEAKER_00: to manage the labor force.
• 58:30
  SPEAKER_00: Last episode,
• 58:31
  SPEAKER_00: I stated that by Bacon's rebellion,
• 58:34
  the plight of servants and the plight of slaves wasn't seen as
• 58:38
  so different to not
• 58:40
  SPEAKER_00: allow them to commiserate with each other.
• 58:43
  SPEAKER_00: But over time,
• 58:45
  SPEAKER_00: like the interracial marriage ban in the Virginia Assembly,
• 58:48
  SPEAKER_00: that would drive a wedge between whites and blacks,
• 58:53
  SPEAKER_00: white servants and black slaves most often.
• 58:57
  And this law also took away a source of power from black people
• 59:02
  that would give
• 59:03
  SPEAKER_00: them any power over some structure of their own,
• 59:08
  SPEAKER_00: namely family and descent.
• 59:11
  SPEAKER_00: Because of this wedge,
• 59:12
  black slaves began to create a new separate culture and made
• 59:19
  sure to distinguish
• 59:21
  SPEAKER_00: themselves from Europeans altogether.
• 59:25
  SPEAKER_00: This,
• 59:25
  SPEAKER_00: along with the natural language barrier,
• 59:27
  SPEAKER_00: drove whites and blacks,
• 59:29
  SPEAKER_00: regardless of social status,
• 59:30
  SPEAKER_00: further apart.
• 59:32
  These racial differences thus bred further stereotypes of
• 59:35
  individual African nationalities.
• 59:38
  SPEAKER_00: And these nationalities,
• 59:39
  SPEAKER_00: in order to prevent easy communication from the slaves,
• 59:42
  SPEAKER_00: were often scattered throughout the region.
• 59:46
  SPEAKER_00: To most whites,
• 59:48
  SPEAKER_00: Black people,
• 59:48
  SPEAKER_00: regardless of whether they were free or enslaved,
• 59:50
  SPEAKER_00: were actually even seen as the same.
• 59:54
  SPEAKER_00: And the law book was filled with distinctions of race, but not of status.
• 1:00:01
  This even led to a push for the removal of all three blacks
• 1:00:04
  from Virginia.
• 1:00:06
  SPEAKER_00: And some families took it upon themselves to do just that.
• 1:00:10
  SPEAKER_00: Despite their efforts, these different ethnicities in Africa...
• 1:00:16
  SPEAKER_00: We're not completely separated altogether.
• 1:00:19
  SPEAKER_00: Daniel K.
• 1:00:20
  Richter in Before the Revolution lays out the different groups
• 1:00:23
  that went where and
• 1:00:24
  SPEAKER_00: what that meant in America.
• 1:00:27
  Quote,
• 1:00:27
  The majority of people imported to South Carolina,
• 1:00:30
  for instance,
• 1:00:30
  were Angolans.
• 1:00:32
  SPEAKER_00: Roughly half of those who went to Tidewater,
• 1:00:34
  SPEAKER_00: Virginia,
• 1:00:35
  SPEAKER_00: were Igbos who sailed from the Bight of Biafra.
• 1:00:38
  SPEAKER_00: And another quarter were Bantu-speaking people from West Central Africa.
• 1:00:41
  SPEAKER_00: End quote.
• 1:00:42
  These African cultural fragments made their way onto the
• 1:00:43
  plantations from the
• 1:00:44
  SPEAKER_00: interior of Africa.
• 1:01:06
  SPEAKER_00: Not Africa as a whole,
• 1:01:08
  SPEAKER_00: but as their individual nation or tribe,
• 1:01:11
  SPEAKER_00: at least where these different groups were clustered.
• 1:01:14
  SPEAKER_00: However,
• 1:01:15
  SPEAKER_00: as these disparate families,
• 1:01:17
  SPEAKER_00: tribes,
• 1:01:17
  SPEAKER_00: and nations were forced to labor alongside one another,
• 1:01:21
  these lines slowly disintegrated until a singular quote-unquote
• 1:01:24
  African identity
• 1:01:26
  SPEAKER_00: began to form.
• 1:01:28
  Rather than integrate as the previous Creole generation of
• 1:01:32
  slaves attempted to do
• 1:01:34
  SPEAKER_00: via shared language and civic knowledge,
• 1:01:36
  this new generation turned inward and recreated African life on
• 1:01:40
  the plantation.
• 1:01:42
  SPEAKER_00: This gave rise to new African Americans,
• 1:01:44
  SPEAKER_00: born in America,
• 1:01:46
  SPEAKER_00: who would completely supersede African-born slaves by 1740.
• 1:01:50
  SPEAKER_00: This new generation, according to Berlin,
• 1:01:53
  SPEAKER_00: lived longer and healthier,
• 1:01:55
  and were much more familiar with the landscapes of the colony
• 1:01:59
  and the economies of
• 1:01:59
  SPEAKER_00: the region.
• 1:02:01
  SPEAKER_00: But most importantly, English was their native tongue.
• 1:02:04
  This distinct African-American culture began to spread beyond
• 1:02:08
  just the slaves and
• 1:02:10
  SPEAKER_00: even influenced white children that they would often raise in the house.
• 1:02:16
  This new culture mixed both English and African grammar and
• 1:02:21
  Christianity with mysticism.
• 1:02:24
  SPEAKER_00: Traditional rituals were incorporated with new customs.
• 1:02:28
  But these differences in culture only further exacerbated the
• 1:02:32
  racial divide.
• 1:02:34
  And by the end of this era,
• 1:02:36
  many white people saw no reconciliation as possible.
• 1:02:41
  And some of the way that people talked about blacks started to
• 1:02:46
  sound like the
• 1:02:46
  SPEAKER_00: eugenics movement that would come over a century later.
• 1:02:51
  SPEAKER_00: Now,
• 1:02:51
  SPEAKER_00: in Virginia and the rest of the Chesapeake,
• 1:02:55
  slave treatment rested between the extremes of the West Indies
• 1:02:58
  and the southern
• 1:03:00
  SPEAKER_00: colonies and what occurred in the northern colonies.
• 1:03:03
  SPEAKER_00: Punishment was still harsh,
• 1:03:05
  and new ways to humiliate and demoralize slaves were constantly introduced.
• 1:03:10
  The work was less brutal than in the low country rice and
• 1:03:13
  island cane fields,
• 1:03:15
  SPEAKER_00: but still harder than the servants had faced in the previous century.
• 1:03:19
  SPEAKER_00: They worked more and longer days with fewer breaks and holidays.
• 1:03:24
  But like in Carolina,
• 1:03:26
  they were able to garner relationships and bear children.
• 1:03:29
  SPEAKER_00: And unlike in Carolina,
• 1:03:31
  this occurred at such a high rate that slave importation began
• 1:03:34
  to slow after 1750,
• 1:03:37
  SPEAKER_00: where the natural increase in slave population overtook it.
• 1:03:42
  Native-born slaves,
• 1:03:43
  as I said earlier,
• 1:03:44
  lived far better than the African-born slaves.
• 1:03:47
  SPEAKER_00: In one major aspect was where they lived altogether.
• 1:03:51
  SPEAKER_00: Berlin was
• 1:03:53
  SPEAKER_00: lays this out,
• 1:04:12
  although they generally took a neater,
• 1:04:14
  more permanent form in the great plantation towns.
• 1:04:18
  SPEAKER_00: But even when ramshackle and dilapidated,
• 1:04:20
  the separate slave quarter marked the acceptance of the slave's
• 1:04:23
  demand for an
• 1:04:24
  independent family life and a grudging concession to the
• 1:04:27
  slave's right to privacy,
• 1:04:28
  SPEAKER_00: a notion that was antithetical to the very idea of chattel bondage.
• 1:04:36
  SPEAKER_00: All these new developments of family,
• 1:04:37
  SPEAKER_00: culture,
• 1:04:38
  SPEAKER_00: and home life began to unsettle the previously drawn labor requirements,
• 1:04:42
  and slaves worked to return to the relative freedom afforded to
• 1:04:46
  the charter generation.
• 1:04:48
  SPEAKER_00: The economic winds began to shift by the middle of the 18th century,
• 1:04:51
  SPEAKER_00: allowing this to begin to take shape.
• 1:04:54
  SPEAKER_00: New grain crops allowed for far more free time,
• 1:04:57
  SPEAKER_00: as they were far less labor-intensive than tobacco.
• 1:05:00
  SPEAKER_00: This forced planters to use them in more skilled labor than fieldwork,
• 1:05:03
  SPEAKER_00: though that was still the predominant form of labor.
• 1:05:07
  SPEAKER_00: The demand for urban labor allowed slaves,
• 1:05:10
  SPEAKER_00: like before,
• 1:05:10
  SPEAKER_00: to sell their time and often worked without supervision.
• 1:05:15
  These greater freedoms brought with it a greater sense for what
• 1:05:18
  they were entitled to,
• 1:05:20
  SPEAKER_00: for food and clothing from the planters,
• 1:05:22
  SPEAKER_00: and even gardens and flocks for their own use.
• 1:05:25
  SPEAKER_00: And over time,
• 1:05:25
  they even began to find ways to level out the relationship
• 1:05:29
  between themselves and
• 1:05:30
  SPEAKER_00: the planters.
• 1:05:31
  These small changes in the economy and how they lived awakened
• 1:05:36
  a new call among the
• 1:05:38
  SPEAKER_00: slaves for true freedom.
• 1:05:41
  SPEAKER_00: It was in the North
• 1:05:43
  SPEAKER_00: where these would become most pertinent,
• 1:05:46
  SPEAKER_00: as this was where the revolution began brewing in the next era.
• 1:05:52
  SPEAKER_00: In the Middle Colonies and North and New England,
• 1:05:56
  SPEAKER_00: the slave trade didn't really start in earnest until the 18th century.
• 1:06:01
  I did talk about the interweaving relationships between New
• 1:06:05
  England and the West Indies,
• 1:06:07
  SPEAKER_00: so it wasn't an unknown business.
• 1:06:10
  SPEAKER_00: but only a few slave voyages were made before the turn of the century.
• 1:06:15
  Between the fall of New Amsterdam in 1664 and the beginning of
• 1:06:19
  the 18th century,
• 1:06:20
  SPEAKER_00: the African slave population in New York City,
• 1:06:23
  SPEAKER_00: for instance,
• 1:06:24
  SPEAKER_00: from 300 to about 600,
• 1:06:27
  SPEAKER_00: but shrank proportionally to about an eighth of the total population.
• 1:06:32
  SPEAKER_00: However,
• 1:06:33
  after the end of Queen Anne's War and the beginning of the
• 1:06:36
  trade boom starting in
• 1:06:38
  SPEAKER_00: the 1720s,
• 1:06:40
  SPEAKER_00: this rapidly shifted.
• 1:06:42
  Slaves became a much more integral part of the city and grew to
• 1:06:45
  represent over 20%
• 1:06:47
  SPEAKER_00: of the population by 1746,
• 1:06:50
  SPEAKER_00: which numbered over 2,400 slaves.
• 1:06:54
  They were purchased by merchants to crew ships and by artisans
• 1:06:58
  to train in the craft.
• 1:07:00
  SPEAKER_00: The highest concentration,
• 1:07:01
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 1:07:02
  SPEAKER_00: were in the estates outside of the cities,
• 1:07:04
  SPEAKER_00: where they still worked alongside indentured servants and tenants,
• 1:07:08
  SPEAKER_00: though were not very different from slaves in the Chesapeake.
• 1:07:11
  SPEAKER_00: Slaves in the north were also still treated terribly.
• 1:07:15
  SPEAKER_00: They were unable to marry,
• 1:07:17
  SPEAKER_00: families were purposefully torn apart,
• 1:07:20
  SPEAKER_00: and they were generally treated as chattel.
• 1:07:23
  SPEAKER_00: Most of these slaves did come from the West Indies still.
• 1:07:26
  SPEAKER_00: They did not directly come from Africa.
• 1:07:29
  Most that arrived in New York,
• 1:07:32
  for instance,
• 1:07:34
  were West Indian slaves to begin with.
• 1:07:37
  SPEAKER_00: In total,
• 1:07:37
  SPEAKER_00: though,
• 1:07:37
  SPEAKER_00: the North had far fewer slaves than in the South,
• 1:07:42
  as the owners of the estates were far more likely to take a
• 1:07:46
  European servant than
• 1:07:48
  SPEAKER_00: an African slave,
• 1:07:49
  SPEAKER_00: despite the fact that there were not many of them.
• 1:07:52
  SPEAKER_00: This doesn't mean that they were against slavery at all.
• 1:07:55
  It was likely more of an economic preference or something like
• 1:07:57
  that than a moral one.
• 1:08:01
  With the arrival of many new planters from Barbados and other
• 1:08:05
  West Indian islands,
• 1:08:08
  SPEAKER_00: after failure to make any profits there,
• 1:08:11
  a contrast grew between the small farmers with one or two
• 1:08:14
  slaves that worked
• 1:08:15
  alongside them and the large plantations with dozens of slaves
• 1:08:20
  who were rarely
• 1:08:21
  SPEAKER_00: interacted with.
• 1:08:23
  Because of the smaller black slave population,
• 1:08:26
  there was some interracial fraternization.
• 1:08:30
  Berlin states that the respectable class in the northern
• 1:08:34
  colonies widely shared the
• 1:08:35
  SPEAKER_00: perception that the social cleavage ran between free and unfree,
• 1:08:40
  SPEAKER_00: not white and black.
• 1:08:42
  SPEAKER_00: Members of the lower orders found their fraternization profitable.
• 1:08:46
  SPEAKER_00: Interracial gangs of thieves operated in every northern city,
• 1:08:50
  SPEAKER_00: often out of clandestine dram shops,
• 1:08:52
  SPEAKER_00: groceries,
• 1:08:53
  SPEAKER_00: gambling dens,
• 1:08:54
  SPEAKER_00: and brothels.
• 1:08:57
  SPEAKER_00: Despite these relationships,
• 1:08:59
  many slaves preferred spending time with those that shared
• 1:09:02
  their lineage and status
• 1:09:04
  SPEAKER_00: as slaves.
• 1:09:05
  These increasingly frequent meetings between racial partners
• 1:09:10
  rather than class partners were
• 1:09:13
  eventually led to anxiety among the white population and laws
• 1:09:17
  disallowing public
• 1:09:18
  SPEAKER_00: congregations of black people began to emerge throughout the colony.
• 1:09:23
  SPEAKER_00: at the beginning of the 18th century.
• 1:09:25
  SPEAKER_00: There was still a racial component to slavery.
• 1:09:28
  SPEAKER_00: In 1702,
• 1:09:29
  SPEAKER_00: New York passed their first comprehensive slave code,
• 1:09:33
  SPEAKER_00: which,
• 1:09:33
  SPEAKER_00: quoting Edwin Burroughs in his book Gotham,
• 1:09:37
  SPEAKER_00: states that this new code,
• 1:09:39
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 1:09:39
  underscored the association of slavery with black skin by
• 1:09:43
  banning the enslavement
• 1:09:44
  of Indians and defining indentured servitude as a condition for
• 1:09:47
  whites only.
• 1:09:48
  SPEAKER_00: It granted masters nearly unlimited powers of correction,
• 1:09:51
  SPEAKER_00: set up special tribunals to try slaves accused of crimes,
• 1:09:55
  SPEAKER_00: and authorized a common whipper for the city.
• 1:09:57
  Subsequent enactments by either the legislature or common
• 1:10:00
  council confirmed that
• 1:10:02
  SPEAKER_00: slavery was heritable through the female line,
• 1:10:04
  SPEAKER_00: prohibited more than three slaves gathering together at a time,
• 1:10:07
  SPEAKER_00: twelve for funerals,
• 1:10:09
  SPEAKER_00: restricted the movement of slaves after nightfall,
• 1:10:12
  SPEAKER_00: banned slaves from selling food or other goods in the streets,
• 1:10:16
  SPEAKER_00: a practice known as huckstering,
• 1:10:18
  SPEAKER_00: and eliminated conversion to Christianity as grounds for manumission.
• 1:10:23
  SPEAKER_00: But these rules were hard to enforce,
• 1:10:25
  SPEAKER_00: and slaves would travel about the city as they worked,
• 1:10:28
  SPEAKER_00: even at night.
• 1:10:30
  SPEAKER_00: With this,
• 1:10:30
  SPEAKER_00: there was a high level of anxiety,
• 1:10:32
  SPEAKER_00: like every other colony with slaves,
• 1:10:35
  SPEAKER_00: about revolts.
• 1:10:36
  And traders knew from stories coming from the West Indies that
• 1:10:40
  slavery routes were
• 1:10:41
  SPEAKER_00: not rare and were often deadly.
• 1:10:44
  SPEAKER_00: But that's the topic for next episode.
• 1:10:47
  SPEAKER_00: Over time,
• 1:10:47
  the middle colonies became more and more reliant on slave labor
• 1:10:51
  in their fields and
• 1:10:52
  SPEAKER_00: in their ports.
• 1:10:54
  SPEAKER_00: However,
• 1:10:54
  SPEAKER_00: unlike the southern colonies where slavery was adopted wholesale,
• 1:10:58
  many tradesmen still reverted to white servants whenever they
• 1:11:01
  became available.
• 1:11:02
  SPEAKER_00: This was not the case in the breadbasket of the Hudson Valley,
• 1:11:06
  SPEAKER_00: Pennsylvania,
• 1:11:06
  SPEAKER_00: and Long Island,
• 1:11:08
  SPEAKER_00: where white servants were quickly replaced with slaves whenever possible.
• 1:11:12
  SPEAKER_00: And unlike the southern plantations,
• 1:11:15
  these rural slaves still remained jack-of-all-trades and often
• 1:11:19
  worked alongside
• 1:11:20
  SPEAKER_00: white servants and wage workers.
• 1:11:23
  SPEAKER_00: Unlike the southern colonies in the Chesapeake,
• 1:11:27
  northern slaveholders never actually tried to keep family units
• 1:11:32
  intact ever.
• 1:11:34
  SPEAKER_00: And because of this,
• 1:11:35
  SPEAKER_00: slave birth rates were incredibly low,
• 1:11:38
  and the black population never actually rose quickly like it
• 1:11:43
  did in the South,
• 1:11:44
  SPEAKER_00: and even fell as a proportion of the whole.
• 1:11:48
  SPEAKER_00: Slaves only had one name,
• 1:11:50
  SPEAKER_00: were not able to register their marriages,
• 1:11:53
  SPEAKER_00: baptize their children,
• 1:11:55
  SPEAKER_00: or hold property.
• 1:11:57
  The influx of slaves from Africa eventually did foster a new
• 1:12:02
  African-American
• 1:12:02
  culture just like in the South that was distinct from the white
• 1:12:06
  culture that existed.
• 1:12:09
  SPEAKER_00: A white culture that was extremely multi-ethnic.
• 1:12:13
  SPEAKER_00: Berlin states that,
• 1:12:14
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 1:12:14
  the propensity of white northerners to lump black people
• 1:12:17
  together mitigated
• 1:12:18
  SPEAKER_00: interracial differences.
• 1:12:20
  SPEAKER_00: Indeed,
• 1:12:20
  SPEAKER_00: compared with the melange of English,
• 1:12:23
  SPEAKER_00: Scots,
• 1:12:23
  SPEAKER_00: Irish,
• 1:12:23
  SPEAKER_00: Germans,
• 1:12:24
  SPEAKER_00: Dutch,
• 1:12:25
  SPEAKER_00: Swedes,
• 1:12:25
  SPEAKER_00: French Huguenots,
• 1:12:26
  SPEAKER_00: and Sephardic Jews who constituted the North's European populace,
• 1:12:30
  SPEAKER_00: men and women of African descent had much in common.
• 1:12:33
  SPEAKER_00: Rather than permanently dividing black people,
• 1:12:36
  the entry of Africans into northern society gave new direction
• 1:12:39
  to African American culture.
• 1:12:41
  SPEAKER_00: End quote.
• 1:12:43
  SPEAKER_00: And white culture, as it was at this point, wasn't a singular thing.
• 1:12:48
  SPEAKER_00: As Berlin states,
• 1:12:50
  SPEAKER_00: it was a multitude of different cultures all in the same area,
• 1:12:56
  SPEAKER_00: especially in the port cities of New York and Philadelphia and Boston.
• 1:13:02
  These black communities were so separated from the white
• 1:13:05
  communities that they had
• 1:13:07
  their own governors and black kings not in reality but in their
• 1:13:12
  own communities.
• 1:13:13
  They held no sway in actual politics but they were extremely
• 1:13:17
  influential in the black community.
• 1:13:20
  SPEAKER_00: By the time of the revolution,
• 1:13:21
  SPEAKER_00: these political instincts grew sharper,
• 1:13:24
  and some leaders that were not in politics began to write
• 1:13:29
  abolition petitions using
• 1:13:30
  the increasing talks of liberty in the middle colonies in New
• 1:13:35
  England to show the
• 1:13:35
  SPEAKER_00: hypocrisy of the revolution.
• 1:13:39
  In New England,
• 1:13:40
  the slave population was even more of a small minority,
• 1:13:43
  nearly 2%.
• 1:13:44
  The highest proportion of the population in New England was
• 1:13:49
  about 10% in Rhode Island.
• 1:13:51
  SPEAKER_00: Slaves were more likely to be located in cities than in the south,
• 1:13:55
  SPEAKER_00: but they were still mostly used on farms.
• 1:13:57
  But these were mostly small farms where masters lived and
• 1:14:00
  worked alongside their slaves.
• 1:14:03
  SPEAKER_00: And even with this proximity, the African roots of these slaves...
• 1:14:07
  were combined with the white culture to create again their own
• 1:14:11
  distinct culture.
• 1:14:13
  This was even cultivated by whites themselves to quell any rebelliousness.
• 1:14:19
  SPEAKER_00: Alan Taylor in American Colonies states that,
• 1:14:23
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 1:14:24
  SPEAKER_00: In an effort to sustain their own cultural space,
• 1:14:27
  northern blacks developed an annual ritual festival known as
• 1:14:30
  Negro Election Day,
• 1:14:31
  SPEAKER_00: when they gathered to drink,
• 1:14:33
  SPEAKER_00: feast,
• 1:14:33
  SPEAKER_00: play,
• 1:14:33
  SPEAKER_00: and dance.
• 1:14:34
  The festivities culminated with a raucous election of local kings,
• 1:14:38
  governors,
• 1:14:38
  and judges.
• 1:14:39
  who acted throughout the next year as arbitrators of disputes
• 1:14:42
  within the black community.
• 1:14:44
  In this manner,
• 1:14:44
  blacks honored their own notables and enjoyed a day as free people.
• 1:14:49
  Masters cooperated by lending clothes and horses to their
• 1:14:51
  slaves for the day.
• 1:14:53
  SPEAKER_00: By tolerating such a brief outlet,
• 1:14:55
  SPEAKER_00: a temporary inversion of authority,
• 1:14:57
  northern whites expressed their self-assurance and helped to
• 1:15:00
  maintain slavery as
• 1:15:01
  SPEAKER_00: the norm on the other 364 days of the year."
• 1:15:07
  SPEAKER_00: This was still slavery, though.
• 1:15:09
  SPEAKER_00: So slaves were still worse off than the whites due to harsh punishments,
• 1:15:13
  SPEAKER_00: lack of rights,
• 1:15:14
  SPEAKER_00: and higher rates of disease.
• 1:15:17
  SPEAKER_00: Again,
• 1:15:17
  it was in these colonies that slaves were the most vocal about
• 1:15:23
  wanting their
• 1:15:23
  SPEAKER_00: freedom and most pointed about the hypocrisy.
• 1:15:28
  SPEAKER_00: And Berlin lays this out clearly,
• 1:15:29
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 1:15:30
  Playing off the hypocrisy of slaveholding by the great
• 1:15:33
  advocates of liberty,
• 1:15:35
  SPEAKER_00: black memorialists enumerated the effects of slavery,
• 1:15:38
  SPEAKER_00: the destruction of family ties,
• 1:15:40
  SPEAKER_00: the denial of religious freedom,
• 1:15:42
  SPEAKER_00: and the limitation on economic advancement.
• 1:15:45
  SPEAKER_00: From that perspective,
• 1:15:46
  SPEAKER_00: Massachusetts slaves demanded not only immediate emancipation,
• 1:15:50
  SPEAKER_00: but also,
• 1:15:50
  SPEAKER_00: quote,
• 1:15:51
  SPEAKER_00: this is quoting one of those slaves,
• 1:15:53
  some part of the unimproved land belonging to the province for
• 1:15:56
  a settlement,
• 1:15:57
  SPEAKER_00: that each just may there sit down quietly under his own fig tree,
• 1:16:02
  SPEAKER_00: end quote.
• 1:16:04
  SPEAKER_00: Now, unfortunately, these dreams would have to wait.
• 1:16:08
  in the north it is true that slavery slowly diminished in
• 1:16:12
  stature and by 1800 was
• 1:16:15
  basically completely gone as an institution but during the
• 1:16:19
  revolution the planters
• 1:16:22
  SPEAKER_00: and the english and europeans in general
• 1:16:25
  became much more enamored in their own fight for their
• 1:16:29
  quote-unquote freedom from
• 1:16:31
  slavery than any fight that the slaves that they held under
• 1:16:36
  bondage sought after.
• 1:16:39
  SPEAKER_00: And on top of that,
• 1:16:40
  SPEAKER_00: in the southern colonies,
• 1:16:42
  SPEAKER_00: these planter-slave relationships only grew more and more divided.
• 1:16:50
  SPEAKER_00: Black slaves in the south became more and more viewed as
• 1:16:55
  as a strict commodity for labor and the dehumanization only
• 1:17:01
  ramped up as time went on.
• 1:17:06
  SPEAKER_00: But like always,
• 1:17:08
  they were still human and they still had agency and they still
• 1:17:13
  cared about their
• 1:17:14
  SPEAKER_00: own position in the world.
• 1:17:17
  SPEAKER_00: And as revolutionary ideologies began to spur up throughout the world,
• 1:17:22
  SPEAKER_00: beginning most specifically on the eastern seaboard of North America,
• 1:17:28
  SPEAKER_00: it became possible to map this ideology onto their own plights.
• 1:17:34
  SPEAKER_00: And over time,
• 1:17:35
  SPEAKER_00: this revolutionary spirit,
• 1:17:38
  SPEAKER_00: the spirit of resistance,
• 1:17:41
  SPEAKER_00: cropped up in unexpected places.
• 1:17:45
  SPEAKER_00: Now it was not successful for these first revolutionaries.
• 1:17:51
  Often the punishment far outweighed any crime that may or may
• 1:17:55
  not have ever been
• 1:17:56
  SPEAKER_00: committed at all.
• 1:17:59
  SPEAKER_00: There was no due process and barely ever a trial.
• 1:18:04
  SPEAKER_00: But that did not mean that they did not try.
• 1:18:10
  SPEAKER_01: Break down my walls.
• 1:18:14
  SPEAKER_01: But I will rise again.
• 1:18:18
  SPEAKER_01: Cause I stand tall in my environment.
• 1:18:27
  SPEAKER_01: How could I ever close my eyes and stay silent since?
• 1:18:36
  SPEAKER_01: They try to take me down with their violence.
• 1:18:45
  SPEAKER_01: So when I see my people fight off the evil, just know this ain't new.
• 1:18:49
  SPEAKER_01: A picture can be framed, but every eye will see a different view.
• 1:18:52
  SPEAKER_01: So when I hear the chants,
• 1:18:53
  SPEAKER_01: when I hear the screams,
• 1:18:54
  SPEAKER_01: when I see the horrible scenes,
• 1:18:56
  SPEAKER_01: when I see the horrid things coming from human beings,
• 1:18:59
  SPEAKER_01: I pray one day a new wave will take over.
• 1:19:03
  SPEAKER_01: What it's like to breathe life in a coma.
• 1:19:06
  SPEAKER_01: We're so blind to the pain of the other.
• 1:19:10
  SPEAKER_01: We must see beyond me in this struggle.
• 1:19:13
  SPEAKER_01: Break down my walls, but I will rise again.
• 1:19:16
  SPEAKER_01: Cause I stand tall in my environment.
• 1:19:20
  How could I ever close my eyes and stay silent since they try
• 1:19:24
  to take me down with
• 1:19:25
  SPEAKER_01: their violence?
• 1:19:29
  SPEAKER_01: Compassion.
• 1:19:30
  SPEAKER_01: Empathy.
• 1:19:31
  SPEAKER_01: Open heart.
• 1:19:32
  SPEAKER_01: I know it's art.
• 1:19:33
  SPEAKER_01: Some march on the boulevard.
• 1:19:35
  SPEAKER_01: Some build.
• 1:19:35
  SPEAKER_01: Some pull apart.
• 1:19:36
  SPEAKER_01: Some blame.
• 1:19:37
  SPEAKER_01: Some do their part.
• 1:19:38
  SPEAKER_01: Bring light when we're in the dark.
• 1:19:40
  SPEAKER_01: Stuck between a rock and a hard place.
• 1:19:41
  SPEAKER_01: Scarred face.
• 1:19:42
  SPEAKER_01: Burnt arms.
• 1:19:42
  SPEAKER_01: Alarm in hell.
• 1:19:43
  SPEAKER_01: Can't hold space.
• 1:19:44
  SPEAKER_01: Multiple truths.
• 1:19:45
  SPEAKER_01: Multiple cues.
• 1:19:46
  SPEAKER_01: Talk about vacuums.
• 1:19:47
  SPEAKER_01: Sucked into the social chat rooms.
• 1:19:49
  SPEAKER_01: Discuss and discuss but ain't taking no action.
• 1:19:51
  SPEAKER_01: Thinking that you know but it's only a fraction.
• 1:19:53
  SPEAKER_01: Now you get the answers without asking.
• 1:19:56
  SPEAKER_01: The math ain't math.
• 1:19:57
  SPEAKER_01: Break down my walls, but I won't rise again.
• 1:20:00
  SPEAKER_01: Cause I stand tall in my environment.
• 1:20:04
  SPEAKER_01: How could I ever close my eyes as they silence sins?
• 1:20:07
  SPEAKER_01: They try to take me down with their violence.
• 1:20:11
  SPEAKER_01: So many persons hurting, but they still put the work in.
• 1:20:14
  And you can't try and chase things that are more uncertain than
• 1:20:17
  they've ever been.
• 1:20:18
  SPEAKER_01: Submersion to open seas.
• 1:20:19
  SPEAKER_01: Look at all these vets with PTSD.
• 1:20:21
  SPEAKER_01: Zero discernment.
• 1:20:22
  SPEAKER_01: They decipher the codes thinking you know.
• 1:20:24
  SPEAKER_01: Easy to eat the apple from the serpent.
• 1:20:26
  SPEAKER_01: Media servant.
• 1:20:27
  SPEAKER_01: We're going to take these words for what purpose?
• 1:20:30
  SPEAKER_01: Are you adding more fuel to the flames?
• 1:20:33
  SPEAKER_01: Will this bring change?
• 1:20:34
  SPEAKER_01: Will this sustain?
• 1:20:35
  SPEAKER_01: Or will this be another stain that adds to the pain?
• 1:20:49
  Break down my walls but I won't rise again Cause I stand tall
• 1:20:54
  in my environment How
• 1:20:56
  could I ever close my eyes as they silence sins They try to
• 1:21:00
  take me down with their
• 1:21:02
  SPEAKER_01: violence
• 1:21:18
  SPEAKER_01: But I will rise Again