Latest / The History of Ireland: Rebellion, Empire, and Independence — Fexingo History / The Civil War That Followed the Treaty: Ireland 1922-1923
Transcript
- Lucas: So last time we left off with the War of Independence ending and the Anglo-Irish Treaty being signed in December 1921. But that treaty didn't bring peace — it tore Ireland apart. Within six months, the country was plunged into a civil war that was arguably even more brutal than the war against the British. Luna: Wait — the people who had just fought together against the British started fighting each other? Lucas: Exactly. The treaty gave Ireland dominion status — the Irish Free State — but it required an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, kept the king as head of state, and allowed Britain to keep three naval ports. For many republicans, that was a betrayal of the cause. The Dáil ratified the treaty by a narrow 64 to 57 vote in January 1922, but the split was deep. Lucas: On one side you had the pro-treaty forces led by Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith. They argued it was a stepping stone to full independence. On the other side, Éamon de Valera and the anti-treaty republicans — including most of the IRA — saw it as a sellout. De Valera walked out of the Dáil, and the IRA began splitting into factions. Luna: So Collins had to fight his own former comrades? Lucas: Yes. And it was an agonizing position for him. Collins had negotiated the treaty, but he knew many of the anti-treaty men personally. For a few months there was a tense standoff. Both sides tried to avoid open conflict. They even had a pact in May to form a coalition government after elections, but it fell apart. Lucas: The breaking point came in April 1922 when a group of anti-treaty IRA men seized the Four Courts in Dublin — the center of Ireland's legal system. They wanted to reignite the fight for a republic. Collins was under pressure from Britain to act, and after the British threatened to treat the Four Courts occupation as a violation of the treaty, he finally decided to move. Luna: What did he do? Lucas: On June 28, 1922, the new Free State army, using British artillery that they'd borrowed, bombarded the Four Courts. After two days of shelling, the building was on fire and the garrison surrendered. But that triggered open warfare across the country. Anti-treaty forces — now often called the Irregulars — seized towns in the south and west. Lucas: The Free State government, led by Michael Collins as commander-in-chief, launched a major offensive. They quickly recaptured most cities, including Cork and Limerick, by August. But the Irregulars melted away into the countryside and started a guerrilla campaign — ambushes, attacks on barracks, destroying infrastructure. Luna: So it turned into a war of ambushes, like against the British, but now Irish against Irish. Lucas: Exactly. And it was vicious. The Free State government passed a Special Powers Act that allowed for executions of captured Irregulars. They executed 77 men officially, but there were many unofficial killings. The most famous death was Michael Collins himself, on August 22, 1922, at an ambush at Béal na Bláth in County Cork. Lucas: Collins was traveling in a convoy when anti-treaty IRA men — some of whom had fought alongside him — opened fire. He was shot in the head and died instantly. His death was a devastating blow to the pro-treaty side. Arthur Griffith had died of a brain hemorrhage ten days earlier, so within a month, both leaders of the Free State were gone. Luna: That's incredible. Who took over? Lucas: William T. Cosgrave became head of government, and Richard Mulcahy took over as commander of the army. They continued the hardline policy. Among the executed was Erskine Childers — the man who had smuggled guns into Ireland during the Howth gun-running in 1914. He was executed by firing squad in November 1922, even though he was a former secretary to the treaty delegation. Luna: They executed a fellow negotiator? That shows how bitter it got. Lucas: Yes. The anti-treaty side didn't have a chance of winning militarily. By early 1923, the Free State had the upper hand. The Irregulars were running low on weapons and support. On April 30, 1923, the anti-treaty IRA chief of staff, Frank Aiken, called a ceasefire. On May 24, de Valera ordered the dumping of arms, effectively ending the war. Lucas: But the war left deep scars. It's estimated that between 1,500 and 2,000 people died. The pro-treaty side became the government — Cumann na nGaedheal, later Fine Gael — while de Valera and the anti-treaty forces eventually formed Fianna Fáil and entered politics in 1927. The civil war divisions shaped Irish politics for decades. Luna: So the two major parties of modern Ireland came out of that split? Lucas: Exactly. Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael have dominated Irish politics ever since, and their roots are in those opposing sides of the civil war. Even today, the civil war remains a sensitive memory. Many families had relatives on both sides. It was a war that pitted brother against brother, and its legacy of bitterness took generations to heal. Luna: And what about the Boundary Commission — was that part of the treaty? Lucas: Good question. The treaty included a Boundary Commission that was supposed to redraw the border with Northern Ireland to reflect local wishes. Many nationalists hoped it would transfer large areas to the Free State, but when the commission finally reported in 1925, it proposed only minor changes. The Free State government accepted the existing border in exchange for financial concessions. So partition remained. Lucas: The civil war also led to the consolidation of the Free State as a stable state. But it was a tragic irony — the men who had fought so hard for independence ended up killing each other over the shape of that independence. It's a reminder that the struggle for Irish freedom was never simple. Luna: It's heartbreaking. Thanks for walking us through it, Lucas. Lucas: It is. And next time we'll pick up in the 1930s, with de Valera finally in power and the gradual dismantling of the treaty — leading to the republic in 1949.