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National Geographic Magazine Vol 08 - 02 February 1897 - National Geographic Society · National Geographic Magazine Vol. 08 - 02. February 1897

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  Speaker 1: Section one of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume eight, February
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  Speaker 1: eighteen ninety seven. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
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  Speaker 1: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
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  Speaker 1: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording by Marianne Spiegel.
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  Speaker 1: Crater Lake, Oregon by J. S. Diller, United States Geological
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  Speaker 1: Survey of Lakes in the United States. There are many,
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  Speaker 1: and in great variety, but of crater lakes there is
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  Speaker 1: but one. Crater lakes are lakes which occupy the craters
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  Speaker 1: of volcanoes or pits of volcanic origin. They are most
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  Speaker 1: abundant in Italy and Central America, regions in which volcanoes
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  Speaker 1: are still active, and they also occur in France, Germany, India, Hawaii,
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  Speaker 1: and other parts of the world where volcanism has played
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  Speaker 1: an important role in its geological history. The one in
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  Speaker 1: the United States belongs to the Great Volcanic Field of
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  Speaker 1: the Northwest, but it occurs in so secluded a spot
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  Speaker 1: among high mountains that it is almost unknown to tourists
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  Speaker 1: and men of science who are especially interested in such
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  Speaker 1: natural wonders. Crater Lake of southern Oregon lies in the
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  Speaker 1: very heart of the Cascade Range, and while it is
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  Speaker 1: especially attractive to the geologist on account of its remarkable
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  Speaker 1: geological history, it is equally inviting to the tourists and
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  Speaker 1: others in search of health and pleasure by communion with
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  Speaker 1: the beautiful and sublime in nature. According to W. G. Steele,
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  Speaker 1: the lake was first seen by white men in eighteen
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  Speaker 1: fifty three. It had long previously been known to the Indians,
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  Speaker 1: whose legends, as related by Steele, have contributed a name
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  Speaker 1: Lao Rock to one of the prominences of its rim.
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  Speaker 1: They regarded the lake with awe as an abode of
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  Speaker 1: the great Spirit. The first travelers of note who visited
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  Speaker 1: the lake were Lord Maxwell and mister Bentley, who in
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  Speaker 1: eighteen seventy two with Captain O. C. Applegate of Modoc
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  Speaker 1: warfame and three others, made a boat trip along its
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  Speaker 1: borders and named several of the prominences on the rim
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  Speaker 1: after members of the party. Missus F. F. Victor saw
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  Speaker 1: the lake in eighteen seventy three and briefly describes it
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  Speaker 1: in Atlantis Arisen. The first geological survey party visited the
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  Speaker 1: lake in eighteen eighty three, when Everett Hayden and the
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  Speaker 1: writer after spending several days in examining the rim, tumbled
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  Speaker 1: logs over the cliffs to the water's edge, lashed them
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  Speaker 1: together with ropes to make a raft, and paddled over
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  Speaker 1: to the island. In eighteen eighty six, under the direction
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  Speaker 1: of Captain now Major C. E. Dutton, many soundings of
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  Speaker 1: the lake were made by W. G. Steele, and a
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  Speaker 1: topographic map of the vicinity was prepared by Mark B.
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  Speaker 1: Kerr and Eugene Ricksecker. Dutton was the first to discover
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  Speaker 1: the more novel and salient features in the geological history
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  Speaker 1: of the lake, of which he has given for his
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  Speaker 1: entertaining pen and all two brief account under the inspiration
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  Speaker 1: of the Mazamas, a society of mountain climbers at Portland, Oregon,
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  Speaker 1: of whose work an account is given in this magazine.
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  Speaker 1: A more extended study of the lake has just been
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  Speaker 1: made by government parties from the Department of Agriculture, the
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  Speaker 1: Fish Commission, and the Geological Survey. Crater Lake is deeply
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  Speaker 1: set in the summit of the Cascade Range, about sixty
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  Speaker 1: five miles north of the California line. As yet it
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  Speaker 1: may be reached only by private conveyance over about eighty
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  Speaker 1: miles of mountain roads from Ashland, Medford or Gold Hill
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  Speaker 1: on the Southern Pacific Railroad in the Rogue River Valley
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  Speaker 1: of southern Oregon. This valley marks the line between the
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  Speaker 1: Klamath Mountains of the Coast Range on the west and
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  Speaker 1: the Cascade Range on the east. The journey from the
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  Speaker 1: railroad to Crater Lake affords a good opportunity to observe
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  Speaker 1: some of the most important features of this great pile
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  Speaker 1: of lavas. The Cascade Range in southern Oregon is a broad,
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  Speaker 1: irregular platform, terminating rather abruptly in places upon its borders,
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  Speaker 1: especially to the westward, where the underlying crestaceous and tertiary
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  Speaker 1: sediments come to the surface. It is surmounted by volcanic
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  Speaker 1: cones and coolies, which are generally smooth, but sometimes rough
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  Speaker 1: and rugged. The cones vary greatly in size and are
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  Speaker 1: distributed without regularity. Each has been an active volcano. The
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  Speaker 1: fragments blown out by violent eruption have fallen about the
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  Speaker 1: volcanic orifice from which they issued, and built up cinder cones.
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  Speaker 1: From their bases have sprung streams of lava coolies, raising
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  Speaker 1: the general level of the country. Between the cones from
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  Speaker 1: some vents by many eruptions, both explosive and effusive. Large
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  Speaker 1: cones like Pit, Shasta and Hood have been built up
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  Speaker 1: where we to examine their internal structure. Exposed in the
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  Speaker 1: walls of the canyons carved in their slopes, we should
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  Speaker 1: find them composed of overlapping layers of life, java and
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  Speaker 1: volcanic congloberate, a structure which is well illustrated in the
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  Speaker 1: rim of Crater Lake. The journey from Ashford by the
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  Speaker 1: Dead Indian Road crosses the range, where the average altitude
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  Speaker 1: is less than five thousand feet. The road passes within
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  Speaker 1: a few miles of Mount Pitt and skirts Pelican Bay
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  Speaker 1: of Klamath Lake, famous for its fishing. After following northward
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  Speaker 1: for some twenty miles along the eastern foot of the range,
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  Speaker 1: it ascends the eastern slope along the castled canyon of
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  Speaker 1: Anna Creek to the rim of Crater Lake. From Medford
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  Speaker 1: or Gold Hill, the trip is a trifle shorter by
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  Speaker 1: the Rogue River Road. It affords some fine views of
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  Speaker 1: the canyons and the rapids of that turbulent stream, and
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  Speaker 1: of the high falls where it receives its affluence. Striking
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  Speaker 1: features along both roads Within twenty miles of the lake
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  Speaker 1: are the plains developed upon a great mass of detritus
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  Speaker 1: filling the valleys across these plains, Anna Creek and Rogue
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  Speaker 1: River have carved deep, narrow canyons with finely sculptured walls,
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  Speaker 1: which the roads follow for some distance. Approaching the lake
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  Speaker 1: from any side, the observer sees a broad cluster of
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  Speaker 1: gentle peaks rising about a thousand feet above the general
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  Speaker 1: crest of the range on which they stand. But not
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  Speaker 1: until after he has left the main road three miles
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  Speaker 1: from the lake does he begin to feel the steepness
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  Speaker 1: of the ascent. The whey winds over a large moraine
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  Speaker 1: littered with lava boulders and well studded with firs, Arriving
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  Speaker 1: at the crest, the lake, in all its majestic beauty,
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  Speaker 1: comes suddenly upon the scene and is profoundly impressive. Descending
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  Speaker 1: the wooded slope a short distance within the rim to
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  Speaker 1: Victor Rock, an excellent general view of the lake is obtained.
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  Speaker 1: The i beholds twenty miles of unbroken cliffs ranging from
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  Speaker 1: over five hundred to nearly two thousand feet in height,
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  Speaker 1: encircling a deep blue sheet of placid water. In which
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  Speaker 1: the mirrored walls vie with the originals in brilliancy and
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  Speaker 1: greatly enhance the depth of the prospect. The first point
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  Speaker 1: to fix our fascinated gaze is Wizard Island, lying nearly
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  Speaker 1: two miles away near the western margin of the lake.
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  Speaker 1: Its rugged western edge and the steep but symmetrical truncated
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  Speaker 1: cone in the eastern portion are very suggestive of volcanic origin.
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  Speaker 1: We cannot, however, indulge our first impulse to go to
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  Speaker 1: the island, for the various features of the Rim are
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  Speaker 1: of greater importance in unraveling the earlier stages of its
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  Speaker 1: geological history. The outer and inner slopes of the Rim
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  Speaker 1: are in strong contrast. While the one is gentle, raging
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  Speaker 1: in general from ten degrees to fifteen degrees, the other
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  Speaker 1: is abrupt and full of cliffs. The outer slope at
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  Speaker 1: all points is away from the lake, and as the
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  Speaker 1: Rim rises at least one thousand feet above the general
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  Speaker 1: summit of the range, it is evidently the basal portion
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  Speaker 1: of a great hollow cone in which the lake is contained.
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  Speaker 1: The map of Crater Lake, prepared from the US Geological
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  Speaker 1: Survey Special Sheet, fully illustrates this feature and also impart
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  Speaker 1: another feature, namely the occurrence of a number of small
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  Speaker 1: cones upon the outer slope of the Great Cone. These
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  Speaker 1: atnate cones are of peculiar significance when we come to
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  Speaker 1: consider the volcanic rocks of which the region is composed.
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  Speaker 1: The rim is ribbed by ridges and spurs radiating from
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  Speaker 1: the lake, and the head of each spur is marked
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  Speaker 1: by a prominence on the crest of the rim. The
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  Speaker 1: variation in altitude of the rim crest is one thousand,
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  Speaker 1: four hundred and sixty nine feet from six thousand, seven
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  Speaker 1: hundred and fifty nine to eight thousand, two hundred and
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  Speaker 1: twenty eight, with seven points rising above eight thousand feet.
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  Speaker 1: The crest generally is passable so that a pedestrian may
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  Speaker 1: follow it continuously around the lake, with the exception of
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  Speaker 1: short intervals about the notches in the southern side. At
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  Speaker 1: many points, the best going is on the inner side
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  Speaker 1: of the crest, where the open slope, generally well marked
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  Speaker 1: with deer trails over beds of pumas, affords an unobstructed
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  Speaker 1: view of the lake. Reference has already been made to
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  Speaker 1: the glacial phenomena of the outer slope of the rim.
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  Speaker 1: There are boulders, not only upon the surface, but also
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  Speaker 1: in piles of glacial gravel and sand, spread far and
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  Speaker 1: wide over the southern and western portion of the Rim,
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  Speaker 1: extending down the watercourses, in some cases for miles to
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  Speaker 1: broad plains through which the present streams have carved the
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  Speaker 1: deep and picturesque canyons already observed on the ascent. At
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  Speaker 1: many points the lavas are well rounded, smooth and straightd
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  Speaker 1: by glacial action. This is true of the ridges as
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  Speaker 1: well as of the valleys, and the distribution of these
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  Speaker 1: marks is co extensive with that of the detritus. A
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  Speaker 1: feature that is particularly impressive to the geologist making a
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  Speaker 1: trip around the lake on the rim crest is the
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  Speaker 1: general occurrence of polished and striated rocks in place on
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  Speaker 1: the very brow of the cliff overlooking the lake. Its
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  Speaker 1: displays are along the crest for three miles northwest of
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  Speaker 1: Victor Rock, but they occur also on the slopes of
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  Speaker 1: Low Rock, Round Top, Kerr Notch and Eagle Crags, thus
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  Speaker 1: completing the circuit of the lake. On the adjacent slope
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  Speaker 1: toward the lake, the same rocks present rough, fractured surfaces
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  Speaker 1: showing no stray. The glaciation of the Rim is a
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  Speaker 1: feature of its outer slope only, but it reaches up
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  Speaker 1: to its very crown. The glaciers armed with stones in
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  Speaker 1: their lower parts. That stria to the crown of the
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  Speaker 1: Rim must have come down from above, and it is
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  Speaker 1: evident that the topographic conditions of to day afford no
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  Speaker 1: such source of supply. The formation of glaciers requires an
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  Speaker 1: elevation extending above the snow line to afford a gathering
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  Speaker 1: ground for the snow that it may accumulate, and, under
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  Speaker 1: the influence of gravity, descend to develop glaciers lower down
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  Speaker 1: on the mountain slopes. It is evident that during the
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  Speaker 1: glacial period Crater Lake did not exist, but that its
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  Speaker 1: site must then have been occupied by a mountain to
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  Speaker 1: furnish the conditions necessary for the extensive glaciation of the Rim,
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  Speaker 1: and the magnitude of the glacial phenomena indicates that the
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  Speaker 1: peak was a large one, rivaling apparently the highest peaks
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  Speaker 1: of the range. The Mazamas held a meeting last summer
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  Speaker 1: at Crater Lake in connection with the Crater Lake Clubs
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  Speaker 1: of Medford, Ashland and Klamath Falls of the same state,
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  Speaker 1: recognizing that the high mountain, which once occupied the place
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  Speaker 1: of the lake was nameless. They christened it with appropriate ceremonies,
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  Speaker 1: Mount Mazama. The rim of the lake is a remnant
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  Speaker 1: of Mount Mazama, but when the name is used in
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  Speaker 1: this paper, reference is intended more especially to that part
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  Speaker 1: which has disappeared. The inner slope of the rim so
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  Speaker 1: well in view from Victor Rock. Although precipitous, is not
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  Speaker 1: a continuous cliff. It is made up of many cliffs
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  Speaker 1: whose horizontal extent is generally much greater than the vertical.
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  Speaker 1: The cliffs are in ledges, and sometimes the whole slope
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  Speaker 1: from crest to shore is one great cliff, not absolutely vertical,
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  Speaker 1: it is true, but yet at so high an angle
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  Speaker 1: as to make it far beyond the possibility of climbing.
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  Speaker 1: Dutton Cliff on the southern and La Rock on the
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  Speaker 1: northern borders of the lake are the greatest cliffs of
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  Speaker 1: the rim. Besides cliffs, the other elements of the inner
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  Speaker 1: slope are forests and talus, and these make it possible
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  Speaker 1: at a few points to approach the lake, not with
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  Speaker 1: great ease, but yet care being taken with little danger.
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  Speaker 1: Southwest of the lake, the inner slope clearly seen from
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  Speaker 1: Victor Rock is pretty well wooded, and from near the
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  Speaker 1: end of the road just east of Victor Rock, a
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  Speaker 1: steep trail descends to the water where talus slopes prevail.
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  Speaker 1: There are no trees, and the loose material maintains the
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  Speaker 1: steepest slope possible without sliding. Such slopes are well displayed
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  Speaker 1: along the western shore opposite the island and near the
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  Speaker 1: northeast corner of the lake under the palisades. At the
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  Speaker 1: latter point, the rim is only five hundred twenty feet
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  Speaker 1: high at along slide called from its shape, the wine Glass,
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  Speaker 1: reaches from crest to shore. The best views of the
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  Speaker 1: Rim are obtained from a boat on the lake, which
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  Speaker 1: affords an opportunity to examine and detail the position and
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  Speaker 1: structure of the cliffs. They are composed wholly of volcanic
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  Speaker 1: congloberate and streams of lava, arranged in layers that dip
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  Speaker 1: into the rim and away from the lake on all sides.
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  Speaker 1: Both forms of volcanic material are well exposed on the
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  Speaker 1: trail descending the inner slope, and although most of the
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  Speaker 1: cliffs are of lava, many are of conglomerate. On arriving
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  Speaker 1: at the water's edge, the observer is struck with the
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  Speaker 1: fact that there is no beach. The steep slopes above
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  Speaker 1: the surface of the lake continue beneath its waters to
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  Speaker 1: great depths. Here and there upon the shore, where a
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  Speaker 1: rill descends from a melting snow bank. Near the crest,
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  Speaker 1: a small delta deposit makes a little shallow, turning the
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  Speaker 1: deep blue water into pale green. As the boat skirts
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  Speaker 1: the western shore and passes toward Lao Rock. The layered
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  Speaker 1: structure of the Rim is evident. On the whole. The
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  Speaker 1: lava streams predominate, although there is much conglomerate. Of all
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  Speaker 1: the floes exposed upon the inner slope, that of Lao
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  Speaker 1: Rock is most prominent and interesting.
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  Speaker 2: In the middle.
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  Speaker 1: It is over twelve hundred feet thick and fills an
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  Speaker 1: ancient valley down the outer slope of the Rim. Upon
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  Speaker 1: either side it tapers to a thin edge against the
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  Speaker 1: upper slope of the valley as shown in Plate one,
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  Speaker 1: and to the lake. It presents a sheer cliff. That is,
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  Speaker 1: it is abruptly cut off, and one wonders how much
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  Speaker 1: farther it may have extended in that direction beneath the rock.
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  Speaker 1: The outline of the valley in cross section is evident,
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  Speaker 1: and it rests upon many layers of older lavas forming
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  Speaker 1: the rim down to the water's edge. The direction of
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  Speaker 1: flow in this great lava stream forces us to believe
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  Speaker 1: that it was erupted from a large volcano which one
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  Speaker 1: stood upon the site of the lake. Every layer of
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  Speaker 1: lava in the Rim is a coulie dipping away from
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  Speaker 1: the lake. This is especially well shown in the canyon
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  Speaker 1: of Sun Creek cut in its outer slope. The sections
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  Speaker 1: of these radiating flows exposed upon the inner slope of
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  Speaker 1: the Rim all tell the same story as to their source.
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  Speaker 1: By projecting the lavas in their course toward a common center,
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  Speaker 1: we can reconstruct in fancy the great volcanic mountain that
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  Speaker 1: once occupied the place of the latter, that is Mount Mazama,
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  Speaker 1: and like Shasta and Rainier, formed a great landmark of
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  Speaker 1: the region. Proceeding eastward from Lao Rock, the Rim loses
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  Speaker 1: somewhat in height, and at the head of Cleetwood Cove
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  Speaker 1: one sees the remarkable spectacle of a lava stream descending
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  Speaker 1: the inner slope of the Rim. It is the only
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  Speaker 1: one that has behaved in this way, and its action
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  Speaker 1: throws much light upon the disappearance of Mount Mazama. The
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  Speaker 1: palisades are less than six hundred feet in elevation above
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  Speaker 1: the lake, and are composed almost wholly of one great flow.
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  Speaker 1: The streams of Laela extending northeast from this portion of
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  Speaker 1: the rim are broad and much younger in appearance than
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  Speaker 1: those forming the great cliffs south of the lake, where
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  Speaker 1: the floes are thinner and more numerous. Round Top is
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  Speaker 1: a dome shaped hill over the eastern end of the palisades,
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  Speaker 1: and is made up chiefly of the lava stream that
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  Speaker 1: formed the palisades, overlain by two sheets of pummice separated
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  Speaker 1: by a layer of rhyolite. The upper surface of the
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  Speaker 1: palisade flow, where best exposed upon the lakeward slope of
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  Speaker 1: Round Top, bears glacial striye that extend beneath the layers
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  Speaker 1: of pummas and rhyolite of later eruption from Mount Mazama.
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  Speaker 1: It is evident from this relation that Mount Mazama was
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  Speaker 1: an active volcano during the glacial period. The occurrence of
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  Speaker 1: eruptions from a snow capped volcano must necessarily produce great floods,
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  Speaker 1: and these conditions may account in some measure at least
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  Speaker 1: for the detritus filled valleys of the streams rising on
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  Speaker 1: the rim of Crater Lake. Returning from this glacial desi
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  Speaker 1: to the boat trip on the lake, it is observed
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  Speaker 1: upon the eastern side of the lake that Red Cloud
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  Speaker 1: Cliff is rendered beautiful by the pinnacles of reddish tuff
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  Speaker 1: near the summit, where it is capt by a great
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  Speaker 1: dark flow of rhyolite, filling a valley in the older
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  Speaker 1: rim and extending far to the northeast. Here the springs
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  Speaker 1: begin to gush from the inner slope and cascade their
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  Speaker 1: foaming rills to the lake. They recur at Sentinel Rock,
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  Speaker 1: Dutton Cliff, and especially under Eagle Crag, as well as
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  Speaker 1: further westward. Their sources in many cases can be seen
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  Speaker 1: in the banks of snow above, but in others they
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  Speaker 1: gush forth as real springs whose waters must find its
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  Speaker 1: way in from the snow upon the outer slope. The
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  Speaker 1: boldest portion of the rim, excepting perhaps Low Rock, is
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  Speaker 1: Dutton Cliff, which is made more impressive by the deep
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  Speaker 1: U shaped notches on either side and the phantom ship
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  Speaker 1: at its foot. The notches mark points where the canyons
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  Speaker 1: of sun and sand creeks pass through the rim to
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  Speaker 1: the cliff overlooking the lake. These canyons, due to erosion
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  Speaker 1: on lines of drainage, belong to the period when the
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  Speaker 1: topographical conditions in that region were quite unlike those of today.
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  Speaker 1: They were carved out by streams of ice and water
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  Speaker 1: descending from a point over the lake, and their presence
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  Speaker 1: ending as they do in the air thousands of feet
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  Speaker 1: above the present water level, affords strong evidence in favor
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  Speaker 1: of the former reality of Mount Mazama. The Phantom Ship
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  Speaker 1: is a craggy little islet near the border of the
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  Speaker 1: lake under Dutton Cliff. Its rugged hull with rocks towering
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  Speaker 1: like the masts of a ship, suggests the name and
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  Speaker 1: phantom like it disappears when viewed in certain lights from
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  Speaker 1: the western rim, Standing in line with an aritae that
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  Speaker 1: descends from an angle of the cliff. It possibly marks
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  Speaker 1: a continuation of the sharp spur beneath the water, or perhaps,
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  Speaker 1: but much less likely, it is a block slide down
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  Speaker 1: from the cliff. Whatever its history, it attracts everyone by
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  Speaker 1: its beauty and windsomeness. At times of volcanic eruption, the
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  Speaker 1: lava rises within the volcano until it either overflows the
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  Speaker 1: crater at the top, or by the great pressure of
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  Speaker 1: the column, bursts open the sides of the volcano and
• 19:15
  Speaker 1: escapes through the fissures to the surface. In the latter case,
• 19:19
  Speaker 1: as the molten material cools, the fissure becomes filled with
• 19:21
  Speaker 1: solid lava and forms a dike. The best example of
• 19:25
  Speaker 1: this sort about Crater Lake appears along the inner slope
• 19:28
  Speaker 1: directly north of Wizard Island and is locally known as
• 19:32
  Speaker 1: the Devil's Backbone. This dike rock standing on edge, varies
• 19:37
  Speaker 1: from five to twenty five feet in thickness and cuts
• 19:40
  Speaker 1: the rim from water to crust. Dikes are most numerous
• 19:44
  Speaker 1: in the older portion of the rim under Lao Rock.
• 19:47
  Speaker 1: They do not cut up through Lao rock and are
• 19:49
  Speaker 1: clearly older than the lava of which that rock is formed.
• 19:53
  Speaker 1: Dikes occur at intervals all around the lake and radiate
• 19:57
  Speaker 1: from it, suggesting that the central volcanic vent from which
• 20:00
  Speaker 1: they issued must have been Mount Mazama. There is another
• 20:04
  Speaker 1: important feature concerning the kinds of volcanic rocks and their
• 20:07
  Speaker 1: order of eruption and distribution about the rim of Crater
• 20:10
  Speaker 1: Lake that is of much interest to the geologist. All
• 20:15
  Speaker 1: the older lavas comprising the inner slope of the rim,
• 20:18
  Speaker 1: especially toward the water's edge, are andesites. The newer ones
• 20:22
  Speaker 1: forming the top of the rim in lau Rock round
• 20:25
  Speaker 1: Top and the rugged crest about the head of Cleetwood Cove,
• 20:28
  Speaker 1: as well as at Cloud Cap, are rhyolites. Other later flows,
• 20:35
  Speaker 1: all of which escaped from the smaller adnate cones upon
• 20:38
  Speaker 1: the outer slope of the rim, are basalts. The eruptions
• 20:43
  Speaker 1: began with lavas of medium acidity andesites, and after long
• 20:47
  Speaker 1: continued activity, lavas both rich rhyolites and poor basalts in
• 20:52
  Speaker 1: silica follow giving a completeness to the products of this
• 20:56
  Speaker 1: great volcanic crater that make it an interesting field of study. Furthermore,
• 21:01
  Speaker 1: the remarkable opportunity afforded by the dissective volcano for the
• 21:04
  Speaker 1: examination of its structure and succession of lavas is unsurpassed.
• 21:09
  Speaker 1: It should be stated, before dismissing the kinds of lava,
• 21:12
  Speaker 1: that there are some rhyoe lights in the sun Creek
• 21:15
  Speaker 1: canyon south of the lake that appear to be older
• 21:17
  Speaker 1: than those upon the north side, and that the final
• 21:20
  Speaker 1: lava of the region on Wizard Island is andysitic. The
• 21:25
  Speaker 1: glaciation and structure of the rim clearly establish the former
• 21:28
  Speaker 1: existence of Mount Mazama, but there may well be doubt
• 21:31
  Speaker 1: as to exact form and size. Judging from the fact
• 21:35
  Speaker 1: that Mount Shasta and the rim of Crater Lake have
• 21:38
  Speaker 1: the same diameter at an altitude of eight thousand feet,
• 21:41
  Speaker 1: and that their lavas are similar, it may with some
• 21:44
  Speaker 1: reason be inferred that Mount Mazama and Mount Shasta were
• 21:47
  Speaker 1: nearly of equal height. The slopes of Mount Shasta may
• 21:50
  Speaker 1: be somewhat steeper than those of the rim of Crater
• 21:53
  Speaker 1: Lake at an equal altitude, but the glaciation of the
• 21:56
  Speaker 1: rim is such as to require a large peak for
• 21:58
  Speaker 1: its source. In the accompanying figure is given a section
• 22:04
  Speaker 1: of Crater Lake and its rim, with the probable outline
• 22:07
  Speaker 1: of Mount Mazama. Wonderful as the lake encircled by cliffs
• 22:11
  Speaker 1: may be, it serves but to conceal in part the
• 22:14
  Speaker 1: greatest wonder that is the enormous pit which is half
• 22:18
  Speaker 1: filled by the lake. The pit, or caldera, as it
• 22:22
  Speaker 1: is called by some geologists, is four thousand feet deep.
• 22:25
  Speaker 1: It extends from the top of the rim half way
• 22:28
  Speaker 1: down to the sea level, and nearly a square mile
• 22:31
  Speaker 1: of its bottom is below the level of Upper Klamath
• 22:34
  Speaker 1: Lake at the eastern foot of the range. The volume
• 22:37
  Speaker 1: of the pit is nearly a dozen cubic miles, and
• 22:40
  Speaker 1: if we add the volume of the lost Mount Mazama,
• 22:43
  Speaker 1: that amount would be increased by at least one half.
• 22:47
  Speaker 1: How is it possible to remove so large a mass
• 22:50
  Speaker 1: and in the process develop so great a pit. The
• 22:54
  Speaker 1: pit is completely enclosed, so that it cannot be regarded
• 22:57
  Speaker 1: as an effective erosion. Volcanic origin of everything about the
• 23:01
  Speaker 1: lake would suggest in a general way that this great
• 23:04
  Speaker 1: revolution must have been wrought by volcanism, either blown out
• 23:08
  Speaker 1: by great volcanic explosion or swallowed up by an equally
• 23:11
  Speaker 1: great engulfment. It is well known that pits have been
• 23:15
  Speaker 1: produced by volcanic explosions, and some of them are occupied
• 23:18
  Speaker 1: by lakes of the kind usually called crater lakes. Pits
• 23:22
  Speaker 1: produced in this way, however, are, with rare exceptions, surrounded
• 23:25
  Speaker 1: by rims composed of the fragmental material blown from the pit.
• 23:30
  Speaker 1: At first sight, the rim about Crater Lakes suggests that
• 23:32
  Speaker 1: the pit was produced by an explosion, and the occurrence
• 23:35
  Speaker 1: of much pumice in that region lends support to this
• 23:38
  Speaker 1: preliminary view, But on careful examination we find, as already stated,
• 23:43
  Speaker 1: that the rim is not made up of fragments blown
• 23:45
  Speaker 1: from the pit, but of layers of solid lava interbedded
• 23:49
  Speaker 1: with those of volcanic conglomerate erupted from Mount Mazama before
• 23:53
  Speaker 1: the pit originated. The moraines deposited by glaciers descending from
• 23:57
  Speaker 1: the mountain formed the surface around a large part of
• 24:00
  Speaker 1: the rim, and as there is no fragmental deposit on
• 24:04
  Speaker 1: these moraines, it is evident that there is nothing whatever
• 24:07
  Speaker 1: to indicate any explosive action in connection with the development
• 24:10
  Speaker 1: of the pit. We may be aided in understanding the
• 24:13
  Speaker 1: possible origin of the pit by picturing the conditions that
• 24:16
  Speaker 1: must have obtained during an effusive eruption of Mount Mazama.
• 24:21
  Speaker 1: At such a time, the column of molten material rose
• 24:24
  Speaker 1: in the interior of the mountain until it overflowed at
• 24:26
  Speaker 1: the summit or burst open the sides of the mountain
• 24:29
  Speaker 1: and escaped through fissures. Fissures formed in this way usually
• 24:33
  Speaker 1: occur high on the slopes of the mountain. If, instead, however,
• 24:38
  Speaker 1: an opening were effected on the mountain side at a
• 24:40
  Speaker 1: much lower level, say some thousands of feet below the summit,
• 24:44
  Speaker 1: and the moulti material escaped, the mountain would be left hollow,
• 24:48
  Speaker 1: and the summit, having so much of its support removed,
• 24:51
  Speaker 1: might cave in and disappear in the molten reservoir. Something
• 24:56
  Speaker 1: of this sort is described by Professor Dana as occurring
• 24:59
  Speaker 1: at Kilauea, Hawaii. The lake in that case is not
• 25:04
  Speaker 1: water but molten lava, for Kiloea is yet an active volcano.
• 25:08
  Speaker 1: In eighteen forty there was an eruption from the slopes
• 25:11
  Speaker 1: of Kilauea, twenty seven miles distant from the lake and
• 25:14
  Speaker 1: over four thousand feet below its level. The column of
• 25:17
  Speaker 1: lava represented by the lake of multi material in Kiloea
• 25:21
  Speaker 1: sank away in connection with this eruption to a depth
• 25:23
  Speaker 1: of three hundred and eighty five feet, and the floor
• 25:26
  Speaker 1: of the region immediately surrounding the lake, left without support,
• 25:30
  Speaker 1: tumbled into the depression. In the intervals between eruptions, the
• 25:34
  Speaker 1: molten column rises again toward the surface, only to be
• 25:37
  Speaker 1: lowered by subsequent eruptions, and the subsidence is not always
• 25:41
  Speaker 1: accompanied by an outflow of lava upon the surface. Sometimes, however,
• 25:45
  Speaker 1: it gushes forth as a great fountain one hundred feet
• 25:48
  Speaker 1: or more in height. The elevated position of the great
• 25:51
  Speaker 1: pit occupied by Crater Lake makes its origin by subsidence
• 25:55
  Speaker 1: seem the more probable. The level of the lowest bed
• 25:59
  Speaker 1: of the lake reaches the surface within fifteen miles to
• 26:02
  Speaker 1: the westward. That Mount Mazama was engulfed is plainly suggested
• 26:06
  Speaker 1: by the behavior of its final lava stream. The greater
• 26:10
  Speaker 1: portion of this last floe descended and spread over the
• 26:12
  Speaker 1: outer slope of the rim, but from the thickest part
• 26:16
  Speaker 1: of the floe, where it fills an old valley at
• 26:18
  Speaker 1: the head of Cleetwood Cove, some of the lava, as
• 26:21
  Speaker 1: already noted, poured down the inner slope. The only plausible
• 26:25
  Speaker 1: explanation of this phenomena seems to be that soon after
• 26:28
  Speaker 1: the final eruption of Mount Mazama, and before the thickest
• 26:31
  Speaker 1: part of the lava effused at that time had solidified,
• 26:34
  Speaker 1: the mountain collapsed and sank away, and the yet viscous
• 26:38
  Speaker 1: portion of the stream followed toward the pit. It has
• 26:42
  Speaker 1: been suggested, but perhaps not in serious thought, that the
• 26:46
  Speaker 1: cone on Wizard Island may represent the summit of the
• 26:49
  Speaker 1: sunken Mount Mazama projecting above the water. To determine the
• 26:53
  Speaker 1: truth of the matter, we must cross over to the island.
• 26:56
  Speaker 1: Wizard Island has two portions, an extremely rough life lava
• 27:00
  Speaker 1: field and a cinder cone. The lava is dark and
• 27:04
  Speaker 1: has a much more basaltic look than any scene in
• 27:06
  Speaker 1: the main body of the rim. It has evidently been
• 27:09
  Speaker 1: erupted from the base of the cinder cone in its
• 27:12
  Speaker 1: present position. The cinder cone, too, is a perfect little volcano,
• 27:17
  Speaker 1: with steep symmetrical slopes eight hundred and forty five feet
• 27:20
  Speaker 1: in height and surmounted by a crater eighty feet deep.
• 27:24
  Speaker 1: It is so new and fresh that it is scarcely
• 27:26
  Speaker 1: forested and shows no trace of weathering. Instead of being
• 27:30
  Speaker 1: a part of the sunken Mount Mizama, it is an
• 27:33
  Speaker 1: entirely new volcano built up sends the subsidence by volcanic
• 27:37
  Speaker 1: action upon the bottom of the pit. Were it not
• 27:40
  Speaker 1: for the lake, the whole bottom of the pit could
• 27:42
  Speaker 1: be examined, and it is possible that other small volcano
• 27:45
  Speaker 1: fields might be found. This suggestion is borne out by
• 27:49
  Speaker 1: the soundings of the lake, which appear to reveal two
• 27:52
  Speaker 1: other cases, but they do not rise to within four
• 27:54
  Speaker 1: hundred feet of the surface of the water. It is
• 27:57
  Speaker 1: evident that the volcanic eruptions upon the bottom of the
• 27:59
  Speaker 1: pit have partially filled it up. Originally, it may have
• 28:03
  Speaker 1: been more than four thousand feet deep. Given the pit
• 28:06
  Speaker 1: with watertight walls, there is no difficulty in forming Crater Lake,
• 28:10
  Speaker 1: for in that region precipitation is greater than evaporation. The
• 28:14
  Speaker 1: lake does not fill up and overflow. The surplus water
• 28:17
  Speaker 1: must have a subterranean outlet, probably towards the southeast, where
• 28:21
  Speaker 1: the region is traversed by extensive breaks in the rocks
• 28:24
  Speaker 1: and abounds in excellent springs. The color of the lake
• 28:28
  Speaker 1: is deep blue, excepting along the borders, where it merges
• 28:31
  Speaker 1: into various shades and tints of green. It is so
• 28:34
  Speaker 1: transparent that even on a hazy day, a white dinner
• 28:37
  Speaker 1: plate ten inches in diameter may be seen at a
• 28:40
  Speaker 1: depth of nearly one hundred feet. It contains no fish,
• 28:43
  Speaker 1: but a small crustacean flourishes in its waters, and salamanders
• 28:47
  Speaker 1: occur in abundance locally along the shore. The level of
• 28:51
  Speaker 1: the lake oscillates with the seasons. During the rainy winter
• 28:54
  Speaker 1: it rises, and in the summer it falls In August last.
• 28:59
  Speaker 1: Observations were made for twenty two days, and the lake
• 29:01
  Speaker 1: sank at a rate of one inch for every five
• 29:04
  Speaker 1: or six days, depending somewhat on the conditions of the weather.
• 29:07
  Speaker 1: The Mazamas have established a water gage, and it is
• 29:11
  Speaker 1: hoped that an extended series of observations may be obtained
• 29:14
  Speaker 1: in the future. Mister B. W Everman of the U.
• 29:19
  Speaker 1: S Fish Commission, who visited the lake last summer, made
• 29:22
  Speaker 1: some interesting observations of its temperature. At one p m.
• 29:26
  Speaker 1: August twenty second, the temperature of the surface water was
• 29:29
  Speaker 1: sixty degrees. At a depth of five hundred and fifty
• 29:32
  Speaker 1: five feet, the temperature was thirty nine degrees. At a
• 29:35
  Speaker 1: depth of one thousand, forty three feet, the temperature was
• 29:38
  Speaker 1: forty one degrees at a depth of one thousand, six
• 29:41
  Speaker 1: hundred and twenty three feet. On the bottom, the temperature
• 29:44
  Speaker 1: was forty six degrees. The increase of temperature with the
• 29:48
  Speaker 1: depth suggests that the bottom may yet be warm from
• 29:51
  Speaker 1: volcanic heat, but more observations are needed to fully establish
• 29:54
  Speaker 1: such an abnormal relation of temperatures in a body of water.
• 29:58
  Speaker 1: Aside from its attract scenic features, Crater Lake affords one
• 30:02
  Speaker 1: of the most interesting and instructive fields for the study
• 30:04
  Speaker 1: of volcanic geology to be found anywhere in the world.
• 30:08
  Speaker 1: Considered in all its aspects, it ranks with the Grand
• 30:11
  Speaker 1: Canyon of the Colorado, the Yosemite Valley, and the Falls
• 30:14
  Speaker 1: of Niagara, and should be set aside as a national
• 30:17
  Speaker 1: park for the pleasure and instruction of the people. End
• 30:21
  Speaker 1: of Section one, Section two of the National Geographic Magazine,
• 30:32
  Speaker 1: Volume eighth, February.
• 30:34
  Speaker 3: Eighteen ninety seven. This is a liprivox recording. All liprivox
• 30:40
  Speaker 3: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 30:43
  Speaker 3: to volunteer, please visit liprivox dot org. Recording by AVAI
• 30:49
  Speaker 3: in October twenty seventeen, the utilization of the vacant public
• 30:55
  Speaker 3: Lands by Emory F. Best, Assistant Commissioner of the General
• 31:01
  Speaker 3: Land Office. No question of public policy has demanded more
• 31:08
  Speaker 3: earnest consideration than the disposal of the public domain. It
• 31:12
  Speaker 3: involved not only the creation of a fund for the
• 31:16
  Speaker 3: redemption of the public debt, but the fundamental principles of
• 31:20
  Speaker 3: government upon which the republic was founded. It has been
• 31:24
  Speaker 3: asserted by some that mismanagement and an inefficient policy have
• 31:29
  Speaker 3: characterized the disposal of the public land from the foundation
• 31:33
  Speaker 3: of the government. On the other hand, it is claimed
• 31:37
  Speaker 3: that a wise and beneficient system has peopled the country
• 31:41
  Speaker 3: with thrifty and energetic settlers, and this is pointed to
• 31:45
  Speaker 3: as one of our greatest achievements. When the Treaty of
• 31:50
  Speaker 3: Peace was concluded between Great Britain and the United States,
• 31:55
  Speaker 3: the unsettled territory west of the Appalachians belonged to c
• 32:00
  Speaker 3: of the Colonies. This fact was one of many obstacles
• 32:04
  Speaker 3: to the ratification of the Articles of Confederation. It was
• 32:09
  Speaker 3: removed by the session of these lands to the United States.
• 32:13
  Speaker 3: By such session, the United States became the proprietor of
• 32:18
  Speaker 3: a territory greater in extent than France or Spain. This
• 32:23
  Speaker 3: formed the nucleus of the public domain, and the laws
• 32:26
  Speaker 3: enacted for the disposal of the public lands in that
• 32:29
  Speaker 3: region have been extended over all the territory thereafter acquired
• 32:34
  Speaker 3: by the national government, except Alaska. The first step in
• 32:39
  Speaker 3: the disposal of the public lands was the passage by
• 32:42
  Speaker 3: Congress of the Ordinance of seventeen eighty seven for the
• 32:46
  Speaker 3: organization and government of the Territory northwest of the Ohio.
• 32:52
  Speaker 3: It provided for the organization of the territories into states
• 32:56
  Speaker 3: with all the rights of the original states, but declares
• 33:00
  Speaker 3: led that the new States should never interfere with the
• 33:02
  Speaker 3: disposal of the soil by the United States, nor with
• 33:06
  Speaker 3: any regulations Congress might find necessary for securing the title
• 33:11
  Speaker 3: in such soil to the purchaser. Upon the admission of
• 33:16
  Speaker 3: new States into the Union, the absolute proprietary power and
• 33:20
  Speaker 3: primary right of disposition of the soil has been uniformly
• 33:25
  Speaker 3: reserved by Solemn Compact. In conformity therewith, the sessions of
• 33:31
  Speaker 3: territory made to the United States by the several States
• 33:35
  Speaker 3: were upon the condition that the land should be held
• 33:38
  Speaker 3: in trust to be disposed of for the common benefit
• 33:42
  Speaker 3: of all the States, and this condition applied as well
• 33:45
  Speaker 3: to all land thereafter acquired by the United States. At first,
• 33:51
  Speaker 3: the controlling purpose in the disposal of the lands was
• 33:54
  Speaker 3: to create a fund for the redemption of the public
• 33:57
  Speaker 3: debt settlement upon them. Public domain was not only discouraged,
• 34:02
  Speaker 3: but was actually forbidden, in pursuance of the policy to
• 34:06
  Speaker 3: convert the public domain into cash as rapidly as possible
• 34:11
  Speaker 3: for the extinguishment of the public debt. Large tracts of
• 34:15
  Speaker 3: land in the Northwest Territory were sold to individuals and
• 34:19
  Speaker 3: companies under authority granted by special Act of Congress. Prior
• 34:24
  Speaker 3: to the adoption of the Constitution. In seventeen ninety, mister Hamilton,
• 34:31
  Speaker 3: then Secretary of the Treasury, submitted to Congress a plan
• 34:35
  Speaker 3: for the disposal of the public domain, which has formed
• 34:38
  Speaker 3: the basis of the public lan system. All legislation upon
• 34:43
  Speaker 3: this subject until the Homestead Act of eighteen sixty two
• 34:48
  Speaker 3: embodied the fundamental principle of mister Hamilton's plan, which contemplated
• 34:53
  Speaker 3: the raising of revenue from the scale of the land.
• 34:57
  Speaker 3: His plan presented two leading features, one the facility of
• 35:02
  Speaker 3: advantageous sales, which as a financial operation, claimed primary attention.
• 35:09
  Speaker 3: The other the accommodation of individuals then inhabiting the Northwest Territory,
• 35:15
  Speaker 3: or who might afterwards settle therein, who were permitted to
• 35:18
  Speaker 3: purchase small tracts for homes. Upon this plan, our public
• 35:24
  Speaker 3: landed system was laid. It provided for the disposal of
• 35:28
  Speaker 3: the public domain at public offering by private cash sales,
• 35:32
  Speaker 3: and by the allowance of the preference right of purchase
• 35:36
  Speaker 3: to actual settlers under the several preemption laws. The preemption
• 35:41
  Speaker 3: laws were at first temporary, being limited in their operation
• 35:46
  Speaker 3: until the General Law of eighteen forty one, which continued
• 35:49
  Speaker 3: in force until its repeal by the Act of March third,
• 35:53
  Speaker 3: eighteen ninety one. While the preemption right was generally considered
• 35:59
  Speaker 3: as a special favor or benefit conferred upon those who inhabit, cultivate,
• 36:04
  Speaker 3: and improve at tract of public land with the intention
• 36:08
  Speaker 3: of making a permanent home, it was practically only the
• 36:12
  Speaker 3: extension of a credit for twelve months to the settler,
• 36:15
  Speaker 3: but with no actual security that he would finally get
• 36:19
  Speaker 3: the land. Up to eighteen forty three, there was no
• 36:22
  Speaker 3: land subject to preemption that could not at any time
• 36:26
  Speaker 3: be bought upon application at the local office at private
• 36:30
  Speaker 3: cash entry at the same price the preemptor was required
• 36:33
  Speaker 3: to pay, and it was not until eighteen sixty that
• 36:37
  Speaker 3: preemption rights could be initiated by settlement upon unsurveyed lands.
• 36:43
  Speaker 3: Even in the bestowal of the munificent grants of alternate
• 36:47
  Speaker 3: sections to aid in the construction of railroads and other
• 36:51
  Speaker 3: works of public improvement. The controlling feature in the disposition
• 36:56
  Speaker 3: of the public lands was not abandoned because the sections
• 36:59
  Speaker 3: of land remaining to the government within the limits of
• 37:02
  Speaker 3: the grant were doubled in price for the purpose of
• 37:05
  Speaker 3: reimbursing the government for the land granted. It was not
• 37:10
  Speaker 3: until the agitation of the question of free homes for
• 37:13
  Speaker 3: the people, which resulted in the Act of May second,
• 37:16
  Speaker 3: eighteen sixty two, that the general policy of sales for
• 37:20
  Speaker 3: revenue was changed. The Homestead Law provided that any citizen
• 37:27
  Speaker 3: who is the head of a family, or who has
• 37:30
  Speaker 3: arrived at the age of twenty four years, may acquire
• 37:33
  Speaker 3: a title to one hundred sixty acres of land by residing,
• 37:37
  Speaker 3: upon cultivating and improving the tract for five years immediately
• 37:43
  Speaker 3: preceding his final proof, free from all costs except the
• 37:47
  Speaker 3: land of his fees. Since the year eighteen sixty two,
• 37:52
  Speaker 3: when this law went into effect, up to the close
• 37:55
  Speaker 3: of the last fiscal year, five hundred eight thousand, nine
• 37:59
  Speaker 3: hundred thirty his six homestead entries have been allowed, embracing
• 38:04
  Speaker 3: an area of sixty seven million, six hundred eighteen thousand,
• 38:08
  Speaker 3: four hundred fifty one acres. How far this beneficent Act
• 38:14
  Speaker 3: has demonstrated the wisdom of the measure and fulfilled the
• 38:18
  Speaker 3: expectations of its advocates must be judged by the growth
• 38:22
  Speaker 3: and prosperity of the country since the period of its enactment.
• 38:27
  Speaker 3: It is true that it went into operation at practically
• 38:31
  Speaker 3: the same period that witnessed the extensive grants in aid
• 38:34
  Speaker 3: of the construction of the Pacific Railroads and other important
• 38:39
  Speaker 3: works of internal improvement. But this important factor, with the
• 38:43
  Speaker 3: aid of the railroads, was mainly instrumental in converting the
• 38:47
  Speaker 3: boundless domain of wild, unsettled Indian country into thriving communities
• 38:53
  Speaker 3: and states, adding immensely to the material wealth and prosperity
• 38:57
  Speaker 3: of the nation. Thus, the government has indirectly derived larger
• 39:03
  Speaker 3: revenues from its bounties than it could have acquired from
• 39:06
  Speaker 3: the cash sales of its lands. It is unnecessary to
• 39:11
  Speaker 3: give a detailed statement of the extent to which the
• 39:14
  Speaker 3: public lands have been entered under the several laws by
• 39:17
  Speaker 3: which such disposition has been governed. Suffice it to say
• 39:21
  Speaker 3: that about two hundred forty seven million acres of land
• 39:25
  Speaker 3: have been sold for cash, including commuted homestead entries, for
• 39:30
  Speaker 3: which the government has received about two hundred eighty million dollars,
• 39:35
  Speaker 3: and that this item, with the grants to aid in
• 39:37
  Speaker 3: the construction of railroads and the donations to states for
• 39:41
  Speaker 3: educational purposes and internal improvements constitute the largest portion of
• 39:46
  Speaker 3: the public domain that has been disposed of by the government.
• 39:52
  Speaker 3: It is estimated that there now remain, exclusive of Alaska,
• 39:57
  Speaker 3: over which the General Land Laws have not been extended,
• 40:00
  Speaker 3: about six hundred million acres of vacant public land, of
• 40:05
  Speaker 3: which about five hundred million acres are within a region
• 40:08
  Speaker 3: where the rainfall is not sufficient to ensure the cultivation
• 40:12
  Speaker 3: of crops without irrigation. The title to the soil is
• 40:16
  Speaker 3: in the United States, and it is subject to disposal
• 40:20
  Speaker 3: under the General Land Laws. But the control of the water,
• 40:24
  Speaker 3: which is the important element in the utilization of these
• 40:27
  Speaker 3: lands for agricultural purposes, rest with the state. Unless these
• 40:33
  Speaker 3: two elements are combined, the land is valueless, and until
• 40:38
  Speaker 3: the land can be brought to an agricultural condition, permanent
• 40:42
  Speaker 3: settlement that will advance the prosperity of the state and
• 40:45
  Speaker 3: nation cannot be expected. Hence, the question is forced upon us,
• 40:51
  Speaker 3: are the laws which have operated so favorably in the
• 40:55
  Speaker 3: disposal of the well watered and fertile lands of the
• 40:58
  Speaker 3: Mississippi Valley adequate to the conditions that confront us in
• 41:02
  Speaker 3: the arid West. The Act of March third, eighteen seventy seven,
• 41:09
  Speaker 3: authorizing the entry of six hundred forty acres of desert
• 41:13
  Speaker 3: land conditioned upon the payment of one dollar twenty five
• 41:17
  Speaker 3: cents per acre and the reclamation of the land by
• 41:20
  Speaker 3: conducting water thereon, was designed to meet these conditions, But
• 41:25
  Speaker 3: whether from the imperfection of the system or from the
• 41:28
  Speaker 3: injudicious administration of the law, it has certainly failed to
• 41:32
  Speaker 3: yield the results most to be desired, even if it
• 41:36
  Speaker 3: has accomplished the purposes of its enactment. It is generally
• 41:41
  Speaker 3: considered that the lands lying along the borders of the
• 41:45
  Speaker 3: small streams and rivulets, which can be irrigated by the
• 41:48
  Speaker 3: individual efforts of the settlers, have practically been appropriated by
• 41:53
  Speaker 3: settlers under the homestead and other general land laws, and
• 41:57
  Speaker 3: that the desirable vacant public land unreclaimed are so situated
• 42:02
  Speaker 3: that they cannot be reclaimed by means at the command
• 42:05
  Speaker 3: of the individual settler. The combined efforts of labor and
• 42:09
  Speaker 3: capital must be employed to ensure a reclamation that is
• 42:14
  Speaker 3: economical and practical. Hence, the homestead law is no longer
• 42:19
  Speaker 3: of practical application in the aerid region, as its operation
• 42:24
  Speaker 3: is rather to retard than to promote the reclamation of
• 42:27
  Speaker 3: these lands. But a more serious problem is how to
• 42:32
  Speaker 3: secure the reclamation of the largest possible portion of the
• 42:35
  Speaker 3: five hundred million acres of vacant public lands within the
• 42:39
  Speaker 3: aerid region. It is estimated that only twenty percent can,
• 42:45
  Speaker 3: under the most favorable conditions, be reclaimed and brought to
• 42:49
  Speaker 3: an agricultural condition, not because of the lack of irrigable land,
• 42:54
  Speaker 3: but because of the limited supply of water, and the
• 42:57
  Speaker 3: irrigation of this quantity can be a common poplished only
• 43:00
  Speaker 3: by the most economical and conservative use of the water
• 43:05
  Speaker 3: and the most judicious selection of the tracts of land
• 43:08
  Speaker 3: to be irrigated. It is therefore evident that as the
• 43:12
  Speaker 3: solution of the problem lies in the economical and practical
• 43:15
  Speaker 3: utilization of the water, the control and use of this
• 43:19
  Speaker 3: element must be of paramount importance to securing title to
• 43:24
  Speaker 3: the land. If the waters of the perennial streams which
• 43:29
  Speaker 3: are wasted during the winter months could be stored and
• 43:33
  Speaker 3: reservoirs could be constructed to impound the storm waters, the
• 43:37
  Speaker 3: area of territories susceptible of irrigation could be largely increased,
• 43:43
  Speaker 3: as the irrigable land is far in excess of the
• 43:45
  Speaker 3: available water supply. The land to be irrigated should also
• 43:50
  Speaker 3: be selected with a view to the most economical use
• 43:53
  Speaker 3: of the water, so that the available lands should be
• 43:56
  Speaker 3: irrigated and disposed of as agricultural lands, and the remaining
• 44:01
  Speaker 3: lands beheld for disposition for other uses. The importance of
• 44:06
  Speaker 3: observing the strictest economy in the distribution of water and
• 44:11
  Speaker 3: a selection of lands is forcibly stated in the minority
• 44:14
  Speaker 3: report of the Special Committee appointed by the United States
• 44:18
  Speaker 3: Senate in eighteen eighty nine to consider the subject of
• 44:21
  Speaker 3: the Irrigation and Reclamation of the arid Lands. It says
• 44:28
  Speaker 3: the irrigable lands are limited in extent. The area of
• 44:32
  Speaker 3: the arid region which can be irrigated is a small
• 44:36
  Speaker 3: fraction of the entire region. This arises from the fact
• 44:40
  Speaker 3: that all the waters that can be used are insufficient
• 44:43
  Speaker 3: to serve all the possible irrigable lands. It therefore becomes
• 44:48
  Speaker 3: necessary to select the lands to be redeemed. On the
• 44:52
  Speaker 3: wisdom of this selection, vast interests depend. It is possible
• 44:57
  Speaker 3: to irrigate lands on the mountains and on the h plateaus,
• 45:01
  Speaker 3: but if the water is used there it cannot be
• 45:04
  Speaker 3: used below, and these elevated lands will not make the
• 45:07
  Speaker 3: best homes for the people. The climate there is rigorous,
• 45:12
  Speaker 3: and the variety of agricultural products that can be raised
• 45:15
  Speaker 3: is limited, being chiefly hay and vegetables. To use the
• 45:20
  Speaker 3: water on such lands is largely to waste it, and
• 45:23
  Speaker 3: to drive agriculture into the mountains is to doom the
• 45:27
  Speaker 3: people engaged therein to a dreary life in a subarctic climate.
• 45:32
  Speaker 3: It is therefore manifestly to the interest of the greatest
• 45:36
  Speaker 3: number of people that the agriculture of the arid lands
• 45:39
  Speaker 3: should not be established in the mountain regions. The valleys
• 45:43
  Speaker 3: and plains below are warm, salubrious, and rich. The variety
• 45:48
  Speaker 3: of agricultural products is great, and if the waters are
• 45:52
  Speaker 3: used on these lands, they will give support to a
• 45:55
  Speaker 3: prosperous people. And this is the condition with which we
• 46:01
  Speaker 3: are confronted. With regard to the vacant public lands in
• 46:04
  Speaker 3: the arid region, then it must follow that these lands
• 46:08
  Speaker 3: should not be disposed of until they have been brought
• 46:11
  Speaker 3: to an agricultural condition. If due regard be had to
• 46:15
  Speaker 3: the practical and economical disposition of them, and with a
• 46:19
  Speaker 3: view to deriving the greatest benefit for the state and nation.
• 46:23
  Speaker 3: This may be accomplished in three ways, one by the
• 46:27
  Speaker 3: construction of reservoirs and irrigating works and the adoption of
• 46:32
  Speaker 3: an irrigation system under the direction of the General Government,
• 46:36
  Speaker 3: two through the agency of irrigation companies, and three by
• 46:42
  Speaker 3: the states controlling the waters within their respective borders. On
• 46:48
  Speaker 3: March twenty, eighteen eighty eight, Congress passed a joint resolution
• 46:52
  Speaker 3: directing the Secretary of the Interior, through the direction of
• 46:56
  Speaker 3: the Geological Survey, to make an examination of that portion
• 47:00
  Speaker 3: of the arid region where agriculture is carried on by
• 47:04
  Speaker 3: means of irrigation, as to the natural advantage of the
• 47:07
  Speaker 3: storage of water, and the practicability and cost of construction
• 47:12
  Speaker 3: and capacity of reservoirs, and such other facts as bear
• 47:16
  Speaker 3: on the question of the storage of water for irrigation purposes.
• 47:21
  Speaker 3: This resolution was followed by legislation making appropriations to enable
• 47:26
  Speaker 3: the Director of the Geological Survey to make the necessary examination,
• 47:31
  Speaker 3: and he was authorized to select sites suitable for the
• 47:35
  Speaker 3: storage reservoirs contemplated by the resolution, which were to remain
• 47:40
  Speaker 3: segregated and reserved from entry, occupation, and settlement until otherwise
• 47:45
  Speaker 3: provided by law. Under this authority, one hundred twenty suitable
• 47:51
  Speaker 3: sites have been selected, and the lands covered by such
• 47:54
  Speaker 3: selections have been reserved from entry, occupation, and settlement, but
• 48:00
  Speaker 3: to this day no provision has been made for their utilization.
• 48:05
  Speaker 3: The plan of reclamation through the agency of land and
• 48:08
  Speaker 3: irrigation companies would not, in my judgment, be commended by
• 48:13
  Speaker 3: the people. And although it might be effective in putting
• 48:16
  Speaker 3: under irrigation all the territory possibly susceptible of irrigation by
• 48:21
  Speaker 3: the water that could be stored, yet it would hardly
• 48:24
  Speaker 3: be possible to make such limitations and restrictions upon a
• 48:28
  Speaker 3: grant of such power as would absolutely protect the settler
• 48:32
  Speaker 3: against extortion and oppression. The third appears to be the
• 48:37
  Speaker 3: most feasible plan for the utilization of the arid lands.
• 48:42
  Speaker 3: The right to the use of the water being under
• 48:44
  Speaker 3: the absolute control of the state, it would, if it
• 48:48
  Speaker 3: controlled the land, to also be enabled so to direct
• 48:52
  Speaker 3: and govern the appropriation of it, as to secure, by
• 48:56
  Speaker 3: a judicious selection of the lands to be irrigated, the
• 48:59
  Speaker 3: most economical and practical use. It would enable the state
• 49:04
  Speaker 3: to check the waste growing out of faulty construction of
• 49:08
  Speaker 3: dams and imperfect systems of applying water. The settler on
• 49:13
  Speaker 3: a tract of desert land, who has acquired a right
• 49:15
  Speaker 3: to the use of water, is interested solely in the
• 49:19
  Speaker 3: application of it to his particular tract, with no responsibility
• 49:23
  Speaker 3: for its economical use. The land is abundant, but the
• 49:28
  Speaker 3: water is scarce, and if we expect to reap advantages
• 49:32
  Speaker 3: by utilizing the water to the greatest extent, it must
• 49:35
  Speaker 3: be accomplished by reclaiming the lands before they are disposed of.
• 49:41
  Speaker 3: This can be accomplished more effectively by the states than
• 49:44
  Speaker 3: through the general government or other agencies. The State of
• 49:50
  Speaker 3: California has adopted a policy based upon the principle of
• 49:54
  Speaker 3: state or common ownership in natural waters, which provides for
• 49:59
  Speaker 3: the ownership by communities of works for the storage and
• 50:03
  Speaker 3: distribution of waters for irrigation purposes. This law, known as
• 50:08
  Speaker 3: the Right Law, which has recently been declared constitutional by
• 50:12
  Speaker 3: the Supreme Court of the United States, has been adopted,
• 50:16
  Speaker 3: i believe, by nearly all the arid land states. It
• 50:20
  Speaker 3: provides for the organization of irrigation districts wherever fifty or
• 50:25
  Speaker 3: a majority of the owners of lands susceptible of one
• 50:29
  Speaker 3: mode of irrigation from a common source and by the
• 50:32
  Speaker 3: same system of works desired to provide for the irrigation
• 50:36
  Speaker 3: of their holdings. It also provides for the creation of
• 50:41
  Speaker 3: a board of directors who have power to purchase lands,
• 50:45
  Speaker 3: water and water rights, and to construct the necessary reservoirs
• 50:50
  Speaker 3: and irrigation works. It also authorizes the issuance of bonds
• 50:55
  Speaker 3: to raise money for the construction of such works. Which
• 50:58
  Speaker 3: bonds are to be paid read out of revenues derived
• 51:01
  Speaker 3: from annual assessments upon the real property of the district,
• 51:06
  Speaker 3: and all such properties subject to taxation by the state
• 51:09
  Speaker 3: is liable to such assessment. I do not attempt to
• 51:14
  Speaker 3: give details, but simply the general features of the law
• 51:18
  Speaker 3: to show how unjustly it would operate. In a district
• 51:21
  Speaker 3: where there was a tract of vacant public land, This
• 51:25
  Speaker 3: land would be susceptible of irrigation by the same system
• 51:29
  Speaker 3: and from the same common source, and would therefore be
• 51:32
  Speaker 3: materially enhanced in value by the construction of irrigation works
• 51:37
  Speaker 3: at the expense of the inhabitants of the district, although
• 51:40
  Speaker 3: the government would not be liable to contribute to it,
• 51:44
  Speaker 3: for the reason that the government lands are not subject
• 51:47
  Speaker 3: to taxation by the state, and are therefore not liable
• 51:51
  Speaker 3: to the assessment. This inequitable feature could be removed if
• 51:56
  Speaker 3: the title to the lands were in the state. In
• 52:00
  Speaker 3: the Arid Region, an average of about seventy six percent
• 52:04
  Speaker 3: of the land is in the hands of the government.
• 52:07
  Speaker 3: In Nevada, about ninety five percent of the area is vacant.
• 52:12
  Speaker 3: These lands contribute nothing to the revenues of the state.
• 52:16
  Speaker 3: With its taxable resources so diminished, it is impossible for
• 52:20
  Speaker 3: the state to undertake a system of irrigation. They should
• 52:24
  Speaker 3: be so disposed of as to make them available as
• 52:27
  Speaker 3: resources from which the state may increase its revenues. The
• 52:32
  Speaker 3: states in the Arid region have established laws for the
• 52:35
  Speaker 3: acquisition and protection of riparian rights based upon the doctrine
• 52:40
  Speaker 3: of priority of appropriation. This has been rendered necessary by
• 52:45
  Speaker 3: the failure of the general government to formulate a uniform
• 52:49
  Speaker 3: system for the protection of the rights of parties and
• 52:52
  Speaker 3: to secure the economical distribution of the water. Under these laws,
• 52:58
  Speaker 3: which differ in many materials respects, rights have been acquired
• 53:02
  Speaker 3: so that a uniform system could not now be established
• 53:06
  Speaker 3: without involving irrigation interests. In serious conflicts, it can be
• 53:12
  Speaker 3: remedied only by giving to each state control of its
• 53:15
  Speaker 3: arid lands to be reclaimed and disposed of under their
• 53:19
  Speaker 3: separate systems. The advantages that would accrue to the state
• 53:25
  Speaker 3: through the control of the land and water are in
• 53:28
  Speaker 3: a measure attained by the Act of August nineteenth, eighteen
• 53:32
  Speaker 3: ninety four, known as the Krie Act. This law authorizes
• 53:37
  Speaker 3: the Secretary of the Interior to contract with any of
• 53:40
  Speaker 3: the desert land states to donate to the states, free
• 53:44
  Speaker 3: of cost, such lands not exceeding one million acres in
• 53:49
  Speaker 3: each state as the state may cause to be irrigated, reclaimed, occupied,
• 53:54
  Speaker 3: and cultivated by actual settlers. It also authorizes the state
• 54:00
  Speaker 3: to make all necessary contracts for causing the land to
• 54:03
  Speaker 3: be reclaimed and for inducing settlement and cultivation, but the
• 54:08
  Speaker 3: state is not authorized to lease or dispose of the
• 54:11
  Speaker 3: lands except to secure the reclamation, cultivation, and settlement. It
• 54:19
  Speaker 3: is in the nature of a grant limited in quantity
• 54:22
  Speaker 3: and conditioned upon reclamation and cultivation. It contemplates that the
• 54:28
  Speaker 3: reclamation shall be accomplished by private capital, but as the
• 54:32
  Speaker 3: land selected cannot be disposed of until it has been
• 54:35
  Speaker 3: patented to the state, it fails to give the state
• 54:39
  Speaker 3: sufficient control of the lands to enable it to pledge
• 54:42
  Speaker 3: them as security for their reclamation, and hence it cannot
• 54:47
  Speaker 3: contract for the construction of works on the most favorable terms.
• 54:51
  Speaker 3: If this law were amended so as to provide for
• 54:54
  Speaker 3: the granting of the lands to the state upon application,
• 54:58
  Speaker 3: leaving the state free to con tracked for their reclamation
• 55:02
  Speaker 3: and to pledge the lands as security, therefore it would
• 55:05
  Speaker 3: be of practical benefit, and under its provisions the state
• 55:09
  Speaker 3: might be enabled to secure the reclamation of all the
• 55:12
  Speaker 3: lands within its limits that could be utilized. As it is,
• 55:18
  Speaker 3: but two states have applied for its benefits, and the
• 55:21
  Speaker 3: feasibility of the scheme for the reclamation and disposal of
• 55:25
  Speaker 3: the arid lands is yet to be ascertained. With this
• 55:30
  Speaker 3: condition confronting us, there can be any valid reason urged
• 55:34
  Speaker 3: against the session of these lands to the states, And
• 55:37
  Speaker 3: may we not go farther and inquire if there is
• 55:40
  Speaker 3: any reason why the trust imposed upon the General Government
• 55:43
  Speaker 3: for the disposal of all the public lands may not
• 55:47
  Speaker 3: safely be delegated to them. The session of the Northwest
• 55:52
  Speaker 3: Territory was made upon the express condition that the ceded
• 55:55
  Speaker 3: lands should be considered as a common Fund for the
• 55:59
  Speaker 3: use and benefit of all the states, and should be
• 56:02
  Speaker 3: disposed of for that purpose and for no other purpose whatever.
• 56:07
  Speaker 3: During the existence of the Confederation and in the earlier
• 56:11
  Speaker 3: decades of the Republic, it was clearly contemplated that the
• 56:15
  Speaker 3: lands so acquired, as well as those acquired by purchase
• 56:19
  Speaker 3: and treaties, could only be disposed of for the purpose
• 56:23
  Speaker 3: of revenue for the redemption of the public debt, and
• 56:26
  Speaker 3: that any other disposition of them would be a violation
• 56:29
  Speaker 3: of the trust. But the policy has gradually changed from
• 56:34
  Speaker 3: a system of sales for revenue only to that of
• 56:38
  Speaker 3: free homes for the people. For the past twenty years,
• 56:42
  Speaker 3: the tendency of legislation has been to repeal all laws
• 56:46
  Speaker 3: authorizing the purchase of the public lands by cash entry
• 56:50
  Speaker 3: and to subject them to a homestead entry only. In
• 56:54
  Speaker 3: eighteen eighty nine, a law was passed withdrawing from private
• 56:58
  Speaker 3: cash entry all the public lands except in the state
• 57:02
  Speaker 3: of Missouri, which was followed by the Act of March third,
• 57:05
  Speaker 3: eighteen ninety one, repealing the preemption law and declaring that
• 57:10
  Speaker 3: no public lands of the United States, except abandoned military
• 57:15
  Speaker 3: or other reservations, or isolated and disconnected tracts and mineral
• 57:20
  Speaker 3: and other lands of especial nature having local application shall
• 57:25
  Speaker 3: be sold at public sale. Since the passage of this law,
• 57:29
  Speaker 3: isolated tracts are not subject to public sale until they
• 57:33
  Speaker 3: have been subject to homestead entry for three years after
• 57:37
  Speaker 3: the surrounding land has been disposed of and abandoned. Military
• 57:43
  Speaker 3: reservations containing more than five thousand acres are now subject
• 57:47
  Speaker 3: to homestead entry. Only. The public lands are therefore no
• 57:51
  Speaker 3: longer to be disposed of, with a view to the
• 57:54
  Speaker 3: revenue to be derived therefrom Besides, less than thirty years ago,
• 58:01
  Speaker 3: a great part of the vast territory west of the
• 58:03
  Speaker 3: Mississippi River was Indian Country, to which the Indian title
• 58:08
  Speaker 3: had not been extinguished, and was practically unorganized territory. Since then,
• 58:14
  Speaker 3: all of what was commonly known as the Indian Country
• 58:17
  Speaker 3: has been ceded to the United States and become a
• 58:20
  Speaker 3: part of the public domain. The Indian title has been
• 58:24
  Speaker 3: extinguished as to all the territory formerly occupied as hunting grounds,
• 58:29
  Speaker 3: in consideration of which diminished reservations of a permanent character
• 58:34
  Speaker 3: have been established. From time to time states have been
• 58:38
  Speaker 3: admitted into the Union, until the entire country is now
• 58:42
  Speaker 3: divided into separate sovereignties with all the rights, powers, duties,
• 58:47
  Speaker 3: and privileges of the original states, except the organized territories
• 58:52
  Speaker 3: of Arizona and New Mexico, which are knocking at the
• 58:56
  Speaker 3: door for admission to the sisterhood. End of section two.
• 59:08
  Speaker 4: Section three of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume eighth, February
• 59:13
  Speaker 4: eighteen ninety seven. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
• 59:17
  Speaker 4: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 59:21
  Speaker 4: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Section three. The
• 59:28
  Speaker 4: Mazamas by J. S. Diller. There was organized on the
• 59:33
  Speaker 4: summit of Mount Hood on July nineteenth, eighteen ninety four,
• 59:37
  Speaker 4: a society of mountain climbers called the Mazamas, whose qualification
• 59:41
  Speaker 4: for membership is the ascent of an acceptable snow capped peak.
• 59:45
  Speaker 4: Remarkable as it may seem, so much enthusiasm was aroused
• 59:49
  Speaker 4: at that time that one hundred and ninety three people
• 59:52
  Speaker 4: ascended eleven thousand, two hundred and twenty five feet to
• 59:55
  Speaker 4: attend the meeting. W. G. Steele, one of the leading
• 59:59
  Speaker 4: spirits of the Oka, was made the first president of
• 1:00:02
  Speaker 4: the organization. The objects of the society are mountain exploration,
• 1:00:07
  Speaker 4: the protection of forests and scenery, and the acquisition and
• 1:00:10
  Speaker 4: dissemination of knowledge concerning them. In the summer of eighteen
• 1:00:14
  Speaker 4: ninety five, with mister Steele again as President and T.
• 1:00:18
  Speaker 4: Brooke White as Secretary, parties were organized to ascend Mount Baker, Rainier, Adams, Hood,
• 1:00:25
  Speaker 4: and Jefferson, and established intercommunication by heliotroping, But owing to
• 1:00:30
  Speaker 4: the smokiness of the atmosphere, the latter part of the
• 1:00:34
  Speaker 4: program could not be carried out. With mister C. H.
• 1:00:38
  Speaker 4: Showles as President and Reverend Earl M. Wilbur as Secretary,
• 1:00:43
  Speaker 4: the Society continued its enthusiastic work in the spring of
• 1:00:46
  Speaker 4: eighteen ninety six by publishing the first number of a
• 1:00:49
  Speaker 4: magazine called Mazama, A Record of Mountaineering in the Pacific Northwest.
• 1:00:54
  Speaker 4: This publication contains, beside the presidential Addresses, the reports of
• 1:00:59
  Speaker 4: the Historical Maian for eighteen ninety four and eighteen ninety five,
• 1:01:03
  Speaker 4: and other matters relating to the Society, the following papers.
• 1:01:08
  Speaker 4: The Flora of Mount Hood by Thomas Howell, who mentions
• 1:01:11
  Speaker 4: two hundred seventy two species growing above two thousand feet.
• 1:01:15
  Speaker 4: The elevation of Mount Adams by Professor Edgar McClure, who
• 1:01:20
  Speaker 4: states the height of the mountain as determined by averaging
• 1:01:23
  Speaker 4: three hourly readings of a mercurial barometer compared with three
• 1:01:28
  Speaker 4: synchronous readings at Seattle, Portland, and Eugene, to be twelve thousand,
• 1:01:33
  Speaker 4: four hundred and one point nine feet. The heliotrope in
• 1:01:37
  Speaker 4: Mountaineering by T. Brooke White describes the instruments used and
• 1:01:42
  Speaker 4: the Morse code. The flora of Mount Adams by W. N.
• 1:01:46
  Speaker 4: Suksdorf and Thomas Howell enumerates four hundred eighty species excluding
• 1:01:52
  Speaker 4: mosses and lichens above two thousand feet in the glaciers
• 1:01:56
  Speaker 4: of Mount Adams. Professor W. D. Lyman estimates that at
• 1:02:00
  Speaker 4: the timberline there are eight or ten glaciers, but only
• 1:02:04
  Speaker 4: three are described as larger than those of Mount Hood.
• 1:02:08
  Speaker 4: The veteran geologist of Oregon, Professor Thomas Condon, described the
• 1:02:12
  Speaker 4: ice caves of Mount Adams, which years ago furnished the
• 1:02:16
  Speaker 4: ice for the city of Portland. He ascribed the cold
• 1:02:19
  Speaker 4: storage feature of the caves to currents of cold air
• 1:02:22
  Speaker 4: descending from the mountain along the tunnels once filled with
• 1:02:26
  Speaker 4: molten lava from the same source. Under the title of
• 1:02:30
  Speaker 4: the Klamath Mountains. The present writer calls attention to the
• 1:02:33
  Speaker 4: geologic and topographic relation between the Sierra Nevada and the
• 1:02:37
  Speaker 4: Cascade and Coast Ranges. The Mezama Excursion of August eighteen
• 1:02:42
  Speaker 4: ninety six was to Crater Lake in connection with the
• 1:02:45
  Speaker 4: Crater Lake Clubs of Medford, Ashland and Klamath Falls in
• 1:02:49
  Speaker 4: southern Oregon. In all, nearly five hundred people attended the meeting,
• 1:02:54
  Speaker 4: and a number of them also ascending Mount Pitt by
• 1:02:57
  Speaker 4: previous arrangement. Four government parties met the excursionists at Crater
• 1:03:02
  Speaker 4: Lake and endeavored in various ways to promote the success
• 1:03:05
  Speaker 4: of the occasion. B. W. Everman of the Fish Commission,
• 1:03:09
  Speaker 4: studied the fish food and spawning grounds of the lake
• 1:03:12
  Speaker 4: and made some interesting observations on the lake temperature. Doctor C.
• 1:03:17
  Speaker 4: Hart Merriam, chief of the Biological Survey of the Agricultural Department,
• 1:03:21
  Speaker 4: assisted by Vernon Bailey and Edward A. Prebble, collected a
• 1:03:26
  Speaker 4: large number of animals about the rim of the lake
• 1:03:28
  Speaker 4: and upon the island, and mister F. V. Covell, the
• 1:03:32
  Speaker 4: department botanist, assisted by mister Leeburg, made a large collection
• 1:03:37
  Speaker 4: of plants. A geological party under the charge of the writer,
• 1:03:41
  Speaker 4: prepared a geological map of the region. The heads of
• 1:03:44
  Speaker 4: all the government parties, as well as many others, were
• 1:03:47
  Speaker 4: called upon for camp fire talks, addresses, or recitations concerning
• 1:03:52
  Speaker 4: matters of scientific and popular interest, especially relating to Crater Lake.
• 1:03:58
  Speaker 4: The proceedings were opened August ah teens by the Klamath
• 1:04:01
  Speaker 4: Falls Club, before the Mazamas arrived, but thereafter. The Great
• 1:04:05
  Speaker 4: Campfire of the Mazamas was the rendezvous after the excursions
• 1:04:09
  Speaker 4: of the day. Among the excursionists, aside from the government parties,
• 1:04:14
  Speaker 4: were a number of botanists and zoologists, as well as
• 1:04:17
  Speaker 4: geologists and professors of various departments. Many were armed with
• 1:04:22
  Speaker 4: cameras to carry away permanent impressions of the lake as
• 1:04:25
  Speaker 4: a whole. The excursion was a great success, and its
• 1:04:28
  Speaker 4: fruits are to be found not only in the widespread
• 1:04:31
  Speaker 4: interest aroused in such proceedings, but also in the forthcoming
• 1:04:35
  Speaker 4: number of the Mazama, which is to contain full accounts
• 1:04:38
  Speaker 4: of the lake, both popular and scientific, from various contributors.
• 1:04:44
  Speaker 4: End of section.
• 1:04:45
  Speaker 2: Three, section four of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume eight,
• 1:04:55
  Speaker 2: February eighteen ninety seven. This is a LibriVox recording. All
• 1:05:00
  Speaker 2: LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information
• 1:05:04
  Speaker 2: or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording by
• 1:05:09
  Speaker 2: Betty B. Geographic Literature, Elementary Geology by Ralph S. Tarr,
• 1:05:17
  Speaker 2: Professor of Dynamic Geology and Physical Geography at Cornell University.
• 1:05:23
  Speaker 2: Pages xxx plus four hundred ninety nine with twenty five
• 1:05:27
  Speaker 2: plates and two hundred sixty eight other illustrations, New York,
• 1:05:32
  Speaker 2: The McMillan Company, eighteen ninety seven, one dollar, forty cents.
• 1:05:37
  Speaker 2: This is a refreshing book. In the first place, the
• 1:05:40
  Speaker 2: type is large and well leaded, and the printers have
• 1:05:44
  Speaker 2: realized the true function of punctuation and largely omitted brain
• 1:05:49
  Speaker 2: wearing dots in useless places, so the eye is attracted
• 1:05:53
  Speaker 2: by the clean cut pages. In the second place, illustrations
• 1:05:57
  Speaker 2: are freely used to supplement the societ Zinc text, and
• 1:06:01
  Speaker 2: nearly all the pictures are photo mechanical reproductions from nature.
• 1:06:06
  Speaker 2: Even the minerals and fossils are represented mainly by half
• 1:06:10
  Speaker 2: tone engravings. Thus the facts of nature are represented with
• 1:06:14
  Speaker 2: a vividness and brought home to the understanding with a
• 1:06:18
  Speaker 2: vigor not to be attained in any other way. Again,
• 1:06:22
  Speaker 2: the author is realized, at least in some measure, that
• 1:06:25
  Speaker 2: the progress of knowledge is ever from the remote toward
• 1:06:29
  Speaker 2: the near, and he has had the courage to directly
• 1:06:32
  Speaker 2: assail the last fortress of the unknown by depicting the
• 1:06:36
  Speaker 2: every day and commonplace features of the Earth, which every
• 1:06:40
  Speaker 2: child may see, end by explaining the principles of Earth's
• 1:06:44
  Speaker 2: science in terms of common things. No geologic book ever
• 1:06:48
  Speaker 2: written is less affected by mysticism, scholasticism, metaphysics, dialectics, and
• 1:06:55
  Speaker 2: other pernicious vestiges of intellectual barbarism. Then the work must
• 1:07:00
  Speaker 2: appeal to the teacher because it is adapted to youth,
• 1:07:05
  Speaker 2: and because it fills a need not quite met by
• 1:07:08
  Speaker 2: any previously issued textbook. After an introductory chapter, the work
• 1:07:13
  Speaker 2: is divided into three parts viz. One structural geology, two
• 1:07:18
  Speaker 2: dynamic geology, and three stratigraphic geology. Professor Tarr half apologizes
• 1:07:25
  Speaker 2: in his preface for the space given to the second
• 1:07:28
  Speaker 2: of these divisions, but he might well have spared the
• 1:07:32
  Speaker 2: explanation and even double this eminently practical and useful part
• 1:07:36
  Speaker 2: of the treatise. The third part might better have been
• 1:07:40
  Speaker 2: divided in name as it is in fact into paleontology
• 1:07:45
  Speaker 2: or the history of life on the globe, and the
• 1:07:47
  Speaker 2: geographic development of the continents, for the treatment is essentially
• 1:07:52
  Speaker 2: historical and not at all stratigraphic. Then it would have
• 1:07:56
  Speaker 2: been in accord with the general method of the book,
• 1:07:59
  Speaker 2: which is the emphasis of the actual and the near,
• 1:08:02
  Speaker 2: to give relatively more space to the life of the
• 1:08:05
  Speaker 2: later ages, also, and more specially, to explain the earlier
• 1:08:10
  Speaker 2: stages in geographic development of North America in terms of
• 1:08:14
  Speaker 2: the later stages. Unfortunately, these later stages, which are in
• 1:08:19
  Speaker 2: themselves of great interest and are now well understood, receive
• 1:08:23
  Speaker 2: but little attention. The chief imperfections in the work lie
• 1:08:28
  Speaker 2: in incompleteness of the treatment from the point of view
• 1:08:31
  Speaker 2: of the geographer, and are due to the fact that
• 1:08:34
  Speaker 2: it is a complement to the same author's elementary physical geography.
• 1:08:39
  Speaker 2: In the main, the facts and principles of geology are
• 1:08:42
  Speaker 2: well generalized and happily expressed. W. J M. The Lessons
• 1:08:49
  Speaker 2: of Erosion due to forest destruction chart the U. S
• 1:08:53
  Speaker 2: Department of Agriculture, Washington, eighteen ninety six, a part of
• 1:08:58
  Speaker 2: the exhibit made by the United States States Department of
• 1:09:01
  Speaker 2: Agriculture at the International and Cotton State's Exposition held in
• 1:09:06
  Speaker 2: Atlanta during the autumn of eighteen ninety five, was a
• 1:09:10
  Speaker 2: series of three models representing one the soil destruction consequent
• 1:09:15
  Speaker 2: on the removal of forests, two the processes required for
• 1:09:20
  Speaker 2: reclamation in the same tract, and three the same tract
• 1:09:24
  Speaker 2: as reclaimed and restored to pristine fertility and productiveness. These
• 1:09:29
  Speaker 2: models were carefully executed by Howell under the direction of
• 1:09:33
  Speaker 2: Bernard E. Fernow, chief of the Forestry Division, with the
• 1:09:38
  Speaker 2: cooperation of several geologists, particularly W. J. McGee. These models
• 1:09:43
  Speaker 2: attracted much attention, and their exhibition in the region in
• 1:09:48
  Speaker 2: which old field erosion is particularly active, was undoubtedly productive
• 1:09:53
  Speaker 2: of much good. Recently, the features of the models have
• 1:09:57
  Speaker 2: been reproduced by chromo lithography in the US the form
• 1:10:00
  Speaker 2: of a large wall chart for distribution among agriculturists and others.
• 1:10:06
  Speaker 2: The reproduction, unhappily, is not equal to the models in
• 1:10:09
  Speaker 2: accuracy of representation, and will hardly be serviceable for educational purposes,
• 1:10:16
  Speaker 2: save in a single direction viz. In attracting attention to
• 1:10:20
  Speaker 2: a subject of great economic importance in many parts of
• 1:10:24
  Speaker 2: the country. W J. M. Preliminary Report on the Income
• 1:10:29
  Speaker 2: account of Railways in the United States for the year
• 1:10:33
  Speaker 2: ending June thirtieth, eighteen ninety six, Interstate Commerce Commission, Page
• 1:10:38
  Speaker 2: sixty eight, Washington, eighteen ninety six, prepared by the Statistician
• 1:10:44
  Speaker 2: to the Commission. During the fiscal year eighteen ninety five
• 1:10:48
  Speaker 2: ninety six, the railways of the United States, having an
• 1:10:52
  Speaker 2: operated mileage of one hundred seventy two thousand, three hundred
• 1:10:56
  Speaker 2: sixty nine miles of line, earned in gross one billion,
• 1:11:01
  Speaker 2: one hundred twenty three million, six hundred forty six thousand,
• 1:11:05
  Speaker 2: five hundred sixty two dollars. The operating expenses were seven
• 1:11:09
  Speaker 2: hundred fifty four million, nine hundred seventy one thousand, five
• 1:11:13
  Speaker 2: hundred fifteen dollars, leaving an income from operation of three
• 1:11:18
  Speaker 2: hundred sixty eight million, six hundred seventy five thousand, forty
• 1:11:22
  Speaker 2: seven dollars. Two thirds of the gross earnings were absorbed
• 1:11:26
  Speaker 2: in operating expenses, leaving one third as income from operation.
• 1:11:31
  Speaker 2: High water mark in railway earnings as represented by gross
• 1:11:35
  Speaker 2: earnings and income from operation per mile of line was
• 1:11:40
  Speaker 2: reached in eighteen ninety one ninety two. In that year,
• 1:11:44
  Speaker 2: gross earnings per mile of line were seven thousand, two
• 1:11:47
  Speaker 2: hundred thirteen dollars, and the income from operation was two thousand,
• 1:11:52
  Speaker 2: four hundred four dollars. From that time until eighteen ninety
• 1:11:56
  Speaker 2: four ninety five, the gross earnings diminished, and in that
• 1:12:00
  Speaker 2: year reached their lowest point, which was six thousand, fifty
• 1:12:04
  Speaker 2: dollars per mile. The income from operation reached its lowest
• 1:12:08
  Speaker 2: point in eighteen ninety three ninety four, when it was
• 1:12:12
  Speaker 2: one thousand, nine hundred forty six dollars. In eighteen ninety
• 1:12:16
  Speaker 2: five ninety six, the gross earnings had increased to six thousand,
• 1:12:21
  Speaker 2: five hundred nineteen dollars and the income from operation to
• 1:12:25
  Speaker 2: two thousand, one hundred thirty nine dollars per mile. It
• 1:12:29
  Speaker 2: is evident from these figures that the lowest point in
• 1:12:32
  Speaker 2: the business of transportation has been passed, and that this
• 1:12:35
  Speaker 2: branch of business is on the upgrade. This gain is
• 1:12:39
  Speaker 2: not confined to any one part of the country, but
• 1:12:42
  Speaker 2: is shown to extend to all parts, with the exception
• 1:12:45
  Speaker 2: of the states of Louisiana and Texas. The dividends declared
• 1:12:49
  Speaker 2: by the roads during the year aggregated fifty four million,
• 1:12:53
  Speaker 2: nine hundred eighty three thousand, seven hundred thirty two dollars,
• 1:12:57
  Speaker 2: an amount almost identical with that of the preceding year. H. G.
• 1:13:03
  Speaker 2: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Number one thousand, thirty nine. Virginia Cartography
• 1:13:10
  Speaker 2: A bibliographical description by P. Lee Phillips, Washington, eighteen ninety six.
• 1:13:17
  Speaker 2: This is an exhaustive account of the early maps of Virginia.
• 1:13:20
  Speaker 2: Special attention is given to John Wits's map of fifteen
• 1:13:24
  Speaker 2: eighty five, Captain John Smith's map of sixteen hundred eight,
• 1:13:29
  Speaker 2: and that of Augustine Hermann of sixteen seventy. Of the
• 1:13:32
  Speaker 2: multitude of maps published in recent years, only a few
• 1:13:36
  Speaker 2: are listed, and it is difficult to see upon what
• 1:13:39
  Speaker 2: basis selection was made, unless it be the fact that
• 1:13:43
  Speaker 2: they happen to be represented in the Library of Congress.
• 1:13:47
  Speaker 2: A singular omission is that of the sheets of the
• 1:13:50
  Speaker 2: U S Geological Survey, which constitute the modern mother map
• 1:13:55
  Speaker 2: HG end of Section four, Section five of the National
• 1:14:06
  Speaker 2: Geographic Magazine, Volume eight, February eighteen ninety seven. This is
• 1:14:12
  Speaker 2: a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain.
• 1:14:16
  Speaker 2: For more information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org.
• 1:14:22
  Speaker 2: Recording by Betty B. Geographic serials. The Bulletin of the
• 1:14:28
  Speaker 2: Geographical Club of Philadelphia for December comprises a trip to
• 1:14:33
  Speaker 2: Manika Land by J. Edward Farnham. This is a little
• 1:14:37
  Speaker 2: known region in southeastern Africa, just south of Zambezi River.
• 1:14:42
  Speaker 2: The article is accompanied by a sketch map. The Journal
• 1:14:45
  Speaker 2: of Geology for November December eighteen ninety six is of
• 1:14:49
  Speaker 2: special interest from a geographical point of view. It opens
• 1:14:53
  Speaker 2: with an article on the age of the ouriferous gravels
• 1:14:57
  Speaker 2: of the Sierra Nevada by W. Lindgren of the Geological Survey.
• 1:15:02
  Speaker 2: These gravels were carefully studied by Professor J. D. Whitney,
• 1:15:06
  Speaker 2: who assigned them to the Pleiocene age. Mister Lindren assigns
• 1:15:10
  Speaker 2: a somewhat greater age to these beds, placing them in
• 1:15:13
  Speaker 2: the Miocene or even Eocene. The evidence upon which his
• 1:15:18
  Speaker 2: conclusions rest being mainly derived from plant remains. Mister Harry
• 1:15:23
  Speaker 2: fielding Reed contributes an exceedingly interesting article upon the mechanics
• 1:15:28
  Speaker 2: of glaciers, and Professor R. D. Salisbury a paper upon
• 1:15:33
  Speaker 2: the lowest in the Wisconsin drift formation. Mister Carlos Sapper
• 1:15:38
  Speaker 2: contributes an article on the geology of Chiappus, Tabasco and
• 1:15:43
  Speaker 2: the Peninsula of Yucatan, accompanied by a small sketch map
• 1:15:48
  Speaker 2: of this little known region. Another contribution by Professor R. D. Salisbury,
• 1:15:53
  Speaker 2: entitled Studies for Students, treats an outline of glacial phenomena.
• 1:15:59
  Speaker 2: The Scottish Geographical Magazine for January eighteen ninety seven contains
• 1:16:04
  Speaker 2: as its leading article a paper by doctor John Murray
• 1:16:08
  Speaker 2: on the temperature of the water of the Scotch Lakes.
• 1:16:11
  Speaker 2: The observations, which are tabulated in extenso show, as a rule,
• 1:16:16
  Speaker 2: a slight increase of temperature from the surface down to
• 1:16:20
  Speaker 2: three or four fathoms, and a gradual reduction in temperature
• 1:16:24
  Speaker 2: down to the greatest depths obtained these eighty fathoms. The
• 1:16:28
  Speaker 2: articles illustrated by diagrams which admirably summarize the results. The
• 1:16:34
  Speaker 2: Geographical Journal for January eighteen ninety seven contains a number
• 1:16:39
  Speaker 2: of articles of interest, among them being accounts of journeys
• 1:16:43
  Speaker 2: and explorations in Melay, Africa, Australia and South America. These
• 1:16:49
  Speaker 2: are a journey through the Malay states of Trenganou and
• 1:16:53
  Speaker 2: Kelantan by Hugh Clifford, researches in Korea by W. R.
• 1:16:59
  Speaker 2: Patten and J. L. Myers. Journeys in Gosha and Beyond
• 1:17:03
  Speaker 2: the d sheech Wama by Clifford H. Cranford, Lake Merou
• 1:17:08
  Speaker 2: and Luapula Delta by A. Blair Watson. Journey from Western
• 1:17:13
  Speaker 2: Australia to Warena in South Australia by W. Carr Boyd.
• 1:17:19
  Speaker 2: Mister W. L. Sclater continues his series of articles on
• 1:17:23
  Speaker 2: the geography of mammals, the present article being devoted to
• 1:17:27
  Speaker 2: the Near Arctic region. Mister George G. Chisholm has an
• 1:17:32
  Speaker 2: article on the distribution of towns and villages in England,
• 1:17:36
  Speaker 2: especially with reference to their geologic location, an aspect which
• 1:17:40
  Speaker 2: is beginning to receive attention. The bulletin of the Sierra
• 1:17:44
  Speaker 2: Club of California opens with an ascent of Mount Lefroy
• 1:17:48
  Speaker 2: in the Canadian Rockies, which resulted in the death of
• 1:17:52
  Speaker 2: mister Phillip Stanley Abbott. Mister Bolton Koit Brown contributes a
• 1:17:56
  Speaker 2: pleasant sketch entitled Wanderings in the High Sierra between Mount
• 1:18:01
  Speaker 2: King and Mount Williamson. The mountain climbers, advised by mister
• 1:18:05
  Speaker 2: Howard Longley, what to take and how to take it.
• 1:18:08
  Speaker 2: Mister J. M. Stillman writes of a trip to Tahipite
• 1:18:12
  Speaker 2: Valley from the King's River and Grand Canyon, and Theodore S.
• 1:18:17
  Speaker 2: Solomon's upon an early summer excursion to the Tuolumni Canyon
• 1:18:23
  Speaker 2: and to Mount Lyell. The Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,
• 1:18:29
  Speaker 2: number four of the year eighteen ninety six, opens with
• 1:18:32
  Speaker 2: a brief summary of the topographic work of the U
• 1:18:35
  Speaker 2: S Geological Survey. In eighteen ninety five, Signor Romero, the
• 1:18:40
  Speaker 2: Mexican Minister to the United States, furnishes a most admirable
• 1:18:44
  Speaker 2: descriptive article on the topography, climate, people, government, and resources
• 1:18:50
  Speaker 2: of his country. It is well that we should have
• 1:18:53
  Speaker 2: a better knowledge than we have hitherto possessed of our
• 1:18:56
  Speaker 2: next door neighbor. On the south, Mister J. V. The
• 1:19:00
  Speaker 2: Rower has an article entitled the utmost Waters of the
• 1:19:03
  Speaker 2: Missouri River. The region described the headwaters of Red Rock Creek, Montana,
• 1:19:09
  Speaker 2: was explored twenty five years ago and has since been
• 1:19:12
  Speaker 2: subdivided by the General Land Office, which, by running a
• 1:19:16
  Speaker 2: line at every mile east, west, north and south, surely
• 1:19:20
  Speaker 2: leaves little room for geographical discovery. The Geographical Society of
• 1:19:25
  Speaker 2: Lima Peru publishes a report accompanied by a map on
• 1:19:30
  Speaker 2: the navigability of the eastern Rivers of Peru. The map
• 1:19:33
  Speaker 2: summarizes the information contained in the report, showing by means
• 1:19:38
  Speaker 2: of symbols, the head of navigation of the rivers. The
• 1:19:43
  Speaker 2: Journal of the Tyne Side Geographical Society gives considerable space
• 1:19:48
  Speaker 2: to Arctic exploration, the first article being on the Jackson
• 1:19:52
  Speaker 2: Harmsworth expedition by mister A. Montefiori Bryce, and the second
• 1:19:58
  Speaker 2: upon Nansen's expedition by Professor Mohn. The resources of Canada
• 1:20:03
  Speaker 2: are treated by Sir Donald A. Smith. It seems strange
• 1:20:07
  Speaker 2: that with such wonderful resources of soil, climate, and minerals
• 1:20:11
  Speaker 2: as Canada is said to possess, its development has been
• 1:20:15
  Speaker 2: so slow. The exceedingly interesting lecture on Venezuela, delivered before
• 1:20:20
  Speaker 2: the National Geographic Society by Professor William E. Curtis, is
• 1:20:25
  Speaker 2: republished in this magazine. Sir Frederick Goldsmith continues in this
• 1:20:30
  Speaker 2: number his papers upon Persia and her Neighbors. H g
• 1:20:38
  Speaker 2: end of Section five, Section six of the National Geographic Magazine,
• 1:20:49
  Speaker 2: Volume eight, February eighteen ninety seven. This is the LibriVox
• 1:20:55
  Speaker 2: recording all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For
• 1:20:59
  Speaker 2: more or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording
• 1:21:05
  Speaker 2: by Betty B. Miscellania. The North American Review four February
• 1:21:12
  Speaker 2: contains a valuable article by John Hays Hammond, from which
• 1:21:16
  Speaker 2: the following items of interest are abstracted. From eighteen eighty
• 1:21:20
  Speaker 2: seven to eighteen ninety five, the Transvall produced gold to
• 1:21:24
  Speaker 2: the value of one hundred fifty eight million, seven hundred
• 1:21:28
  Speaker 2: fifty thousand dollars, one hundred forty four million of which
• 1:21:32
  Speaker 2: came from the witwaters Rand district. The central part of
• 1:21:36
  Speaker 2: this district, twenty seven miles of reef is expected to
• 1:21:40
  Speaker 2: produce three billion dollars of gold, of which two thirds
• 1:21:44
  Speaker 2: is in the central section of eleven point five miles.
• 1:21:48
  Speaker 2: Its output for eighteen ninety six was thirty seven million dollars,
• 1:21:53
  Speaker 2: or about sixteen percent of that of the entire world.
• 1:21:57
  Speaker 2: California produced up to January eighteen ninety seven one billion,
• 1:22:02
  Speaker 2: two hundred eighty two million dollars in gold, three fourths
• 1:22:06
  Speaker 2: being from placers. Kimberly has produced upwards of twelve tons
• 1:22:10
  Speaker 2: of diamonds, representing a value of four hundred million dollars.
• 1:22:15
  Speaker 2: The present annual production is about two million, five hundred
• 1:22:19
  Speaker 2: thousand carets of the value of twenty million dollars a
• 1:22:24
  Speaker 2: w g. The Rajputz and Brahmins of India are breaking
• 1:22:28
  Speaker 2: down the barriers of caste and displaying in competition with
• 1:22:33
  Speaker 2: the Anglo Saxon race, that brilliance and subtlety of intellect
• 1:22:37
  Speaker 2: for which they are distinguished. Professor Yagadis Chunderbos of the
• 1:22:42
  Speaker 2: University of Calcutta has excited the astonishment and admiration of
• 1:22:47
  Speaker 2: all Europe by his recent papers on the determination of
• 1:22:51
  Speaker 2: the indices of electric refraction and of the wavelengths of
• 1:22:56
  Speaker 2: electric radiation. The highest honors of the Indias Civil Service
• 1:23:00
  Speaker 2: examinations for eighteen ninety six also fell to a Hindu
• 1:23:05
  Speaker 2: who vanquished in a keen intellectual encounter many candidates with
• 1:23:10
  Speaker 2: distinguished academic careers. In England, Prince Ranjitsinhinji has taken high
• 1:23:17
  Speaker 2: university honors, besides securing by the brilliancy of his play
• 1:23:22
  Speaker 2: the very foremost place in the great national game of cricket.
• 1:23:26
  Speaker 2: Several Indian barristers have won their way into the higher
• 1:23:30
  Speaker 2: ranks of the legal profession in London. An Indian physician
• 1:23:34
  Speaker 2: was recently elected to the staff of one of the
• 1:23:37
  Speaker 2: London hospitals, and two highly educated Indian surveyors are working
• 1:23:42
  Speaker 2: in British Central Africa. In November, the University of Oxford
• 1:23:47
  Speaker 2: conferred the degree of Doctor of Music upon Rajasvi Sorindro
• 1:23:53
  Speaker 2: Mohun Tahori of Calcutta, the principal exponent of the theory
• 1:23:58
  Speaker 2: of Indian music, who had as for thirty one years,
• 1:24:01
  Speaker 2: devoted his wealth and talents to the development of music
• 1:24:05
  Speaker 2: among his countrymen. In this case, however, the recipient of
• 1:24:09
  Speaker 2: the distinction was unwilling to lose cast, even temporarily by
• 1:24:14
  Speaker 2: crossing the ocean, and the degree was conferred in absentia. J. H.
• 1:24:21
  Speaker 2: End Of Section six, Section seven of the National Geographic Magazine,
• 1:24:33
  Speaker 2: Volume eight, February eighteen ninety seven. This is a LibriVox recording.
• 1:24:38
  Speaker 2: All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more
• 1:24:42
  Speaker 2: information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording
• 1:24:48
  Speaker 2: by Betty b. The National Geographic Society Synopsis of lectures
• 1:24:55
  Speaker 2: the forthcoming course of lectures on the effects of geographic
• 1:25:00
  Speaker 2: environment in developing the civilization of the World as supplementary
• 1:25:05
  Speaker 2: to the general synopsis of this course published in the
• 1:25:08
  Speaker 2: January number of the National Geographic Magazine. The following special
• 1:25:13
  Speaker 2: synopsies have been furnished by the different lectures March first,
• 1:25:19
  Speaker 2: The Effect of Geographic environment in the development of civilization
• 1:25:23
  Speaker 2: in prehistoric Man by Honorable Gardener G. Hubbard. The civilization
• 1:25:29
  Speaker 2: of man did not originate from within, but has ever
• 1:25:32
  Speaker 2: been the effect of geographic environment pressing from without. While
• 1:25:37
  Speaker 2: civilization has been on the whole beneficial, yet every advance
• 1:25:41
  Speaker 2: has been accompanied by suffering and death. Man was originally
• 1:25:45
  Speaker 2: subject to nature and depended on nature for his food
• 1:25:48
  Speaker 2: and habitation, and was even less provided than many other animals.
• 1:25:53
  Speaker 2: The joy and suffering of the savage were less than
• 1:25:56
  Speaker 2: those of civilized man, for care and responsibilit come with civilization.
• 1:26:02
  Speaker 2: Civilization has never advanced steadily in any country or any age.
• 1:26:07
  Speaker 2: After remaining stationary for ages and often retrograding. Beginning in
• 1:26:12
  Speaker 2: the Orient, it has gradually traveled westward, save in its
• 1:26:16
  Speaker 2: early progress to China in the east and to Egypt
• 1:26:20
  Speaker 2: in the south. Nearly three fourths of the earth have
• 1:26:23
  Speaker 2: always been and are now occupied by savages or barbarians
• 1:26:28
  Speaker 2: and nomad races. Three fourths of the population are civilized
• 1:26:32
  Speaker 2: and occupy the remaining quarter of the globe. The earliest
• 1:26:36
  Speaker 2: remains of man are found in banks of rivers and
• 1:26:40
  Speaker 2: in caves in England and France, and are accompanied by
• 1:26:43
  Speaker 2: bones of animals, either long since extinct or now living
• 1:26:47
  Speaker 2: in the Arctic or toward zones, showing the great antiquity
• 1:26:51
  Speaker 2: of man and as manner of life and implements of
• 1:26:55
  Speaker 2: offense and defense. Savage and barbarous nations obtain all their
• 1:26:59
  Speaker 2: fa food from nature, and, like many animals, have no
• 1:27:03
  Speaker 2: care or thought for the morrow. This uncertainty of life
• 1:27:07
  Speaker 2: leads to recklessness and idleness. The first step in advance
• 1:27:11
  Speaker 2: seems to have been made by the inhabitants of Central Asia,
• 1:27:15
  Speaker 2: where the geographical environment furnished inducement for the life of
• 1:27:19
  Speaker 2: the nomad. For here was the home of the sheep, goat,
• 1:27:23
  Speaker 2: and horse. They were obliged to care for their flocks
• 1:27:26
  Speaker 2: morning and night, and in summer provide for winter. Thus
• 1:27:30
  Speaker 2: they were trained in ways unknown to the savage, and
• 1:27:33
  Speaker 2: took the first step towards civilization. These nomads have never
• 1:27:38
  Speaker 2: made further progress. They lived the same life today in
• 1:27:41
  Speaker 2: Arabia and Central Asia, that they have lived for thousands
• 1:27:46
  Speaker 2: and perhaps tens of thousands of years. The next step
• 1:27:49
  Speaker 2: in civilization, and the first progressive step, was in countries
• 1:27:54
  Speaker 2: like Egypt, Mesopotamia and China, where rivers overflow their banks
• 1:27:59
  Speaker 2: and earsate the desert, and where the people were taught
• 1:28:02
  Speaker 2: of necessity to dig irrigating ditches. The land yielded luxuriantly
• 1:28:08
  Speaker 2: and with little labor, so a large population was soon gathered,
• 1:28:12
  Speaker 2: and men were thus brought in close contact. For there
• 1:28:15
  Speaker 2: can be no progressive civilization without the intimate contact of
• 1:28:20
  Speaker 2: man with man. This contact is impossible where men live
• 1:28:24
  Speaker 2: by hunting or by pasturing cattle, for then one man
• 1:28:28
  Speaker 2: requires for his support the same territory that will sustain
• 1:28:33
  Speaker 2: many civilized men. The civilization of Egypt and Mesopotamia was
• 1:28:38
  Speaker 2: of a low order, for there could be neither liberty
• 1:28:41
  Speaker 2: of thought nor of action where there were only two classes,
• 1:28:45
  Speaker 2: master and servant. Under the patriarchal system, the father was
• 1:28:50
  Speaker 2: the head of the family, the children were subject to him,
• 1:28:53
  Speaker 2: and the property belonged to him. As the families increased,
• 1:28:57
  Speaker 2: the successor of the father, the old or most powerful
• 1:29:01
  Speaker 2: sun became in like manner, the patriarch. We see these
• 1:29:05
  Speaker 2: features exemplified in the life of Abraham, who had absolute
• 1:29:10
  Speaker 2: control over the life of Isaac. The continuance of this
• 1:29:13
  Speaker 2: despotism and slavery in Babylon led to luxury, decay, and
• 1:29:18
  Speaker 2: the extinction of civilized life. It was not until civilization
• 1:29:23
  Speaker 2: reached Greece that personal freedom with liberty of mind and
• 1:29:27
  Speaker 2: body was obtained, and only then was the commencement of arts,
• 1:29:31
  Speaker 2: science and true civilization. March eighth, Babylonia by William Hayes
• 1:29:37
  Speaker 2: Ward d d l D. Of The Independent. It is
• 1:29:42
  Speaker 2: still uncertain whether civilization began in the Nile or the
• 1:29:47
  Speaker 2: Euphrates Valley. Babylonian history must now be pushed back a
• 1:29:51
  Speaker 2: thousand years or more beyond Sargon of Agani, who lived
• 1:29:56
  Speaker 2: thirty eight hundred b C. It is generally asserted that
• 1:30:00
  Speaker 2: civilization must begin in a river bottom, which affords abundant
• 1:30:05
  Speaker 2: food for a dense population and compels division of labor.
• 1:30:10
  Speaker 2: Record of civilization begins with writing. All progress before it
• 1:30:14
  Speaker 2: is prehistoric. Writing was independently invented in these two valleys.
• 1:30:19
  Speaker 2: The Nile and Euphrates Valleys had important differences, though alike
• 1:30:23
  Speaker 2: in climate and fertility. The Nile Valley is accessible only
• 1:30:28
  Speaker 2: at its lower end, protected on the sides by desert
• 1:30:32
  Speaker 2: and at the upper end by cataracts. The Euphrates Valley
• 1:30:35
  Speaker 2: is easily attacked from the north towards Syria and Armenia
• 1:30:40
  Speaker 2: and from the east towards Elam, and was liable to
• 1:30:43
  Speaker 2: be overrun by barbarous hordes. The composite Euphrates and Tigris
• 1:30:47
  Speaker 2: Valley differs from the Nile Valley in the nature of
• 1:30:51
  Speaker 2: its floods. The Tigris flood comes first, and the flood
• 1:30:55
  Speaker 2: is not so much welcomed as guarded against. Irrigation by
• 1:30:59
  Speaker 2: canal is of first importance. Babylonia is a land of
• 1:31:03
  Speaker 2: natural swamps, where the mounds of old cities and the
• 1:31:07
  Speaker 2: banks of great canals are the chief feature of the landscape.
• 1:31:11
  Speaker 2: As soon as irrigation ceases, all returns to desolation. The
• 1:31:16
  Speaker 2: valley has advanced more than one hundred miles into the
• 1:31:19
  Speaker 2: Persian Gulf since its first cities were built. In the
• 1:31:22
  Speaker 2: Nile Valley, the date palm was first cultivated, while wheat
• 1:31:27
  Speaker 2: and barley came probably from the Euphrates region. Very ancient
• 1:31:31
  Speaker 2: monuments show gods adorned with grain and honoured with the plow.
• 1:31:36
  Speaker 2: The native fauna included the buffalo, the wild ox, the ass,
• 1:31:40
  Speaker 2: the sheep, and the goat, all domesticated in the earliest
• 1:31:44
  Speaker 2: times and providing an unequal basis for incipient civilization. These
• 1:31:50
  Speaker 2: natural advantages allowed a dense population, but the danger of invasion,
• 1:31:55
  Speaker 2: especially from Elam, compelled the population, which from the beginning
• 1:32:00
  Speaker 2: had had to fight lions, leopards and wild oxen, also
• 1:32:04
  Speaker 2: to fight their neighbors. This developed a more warlike race
• 1:32:08
  Speaker 2: than inhabited Egypt. Barbaric invasions also gave a more composite
• 1:32:13
  Speaker 2: population and necessitated civil wars. From the beginning of history
• 1:32:19
  Speaker 2: we find Babylonia attacking Elam on the east and reaching
• 1:32:23
  Speaker 2: to the north and west as far as the Mediterranean.
• 1:32:27
  Speaker 2: Before the eighteenth Egyptian dynasty, Egyptian influence had hardly entered Asia,
• 1:32:33
  Speaker 2: while Babylonia ruled as far as Cyprus, and it was
• 1:32:36
  Speaker 2: Babylonian culture which controlled Asia minor and all the coast.
• 1:32:41
  Speaker 2: Created the Assyrian and Hittite people, and through these and
• 1:32:45
  Speaker 2: the Phoenician trade, gave the chief impulse to Greek civilization.
• 1:32:50
  Speaker 2: March fifteenth Syria by Reverend Doctor Thomas J. Shahan of
• 1:32:55
  Speaker 2: the Catholic University of America. Syria its human interest from
• 1:33:01
  Speaker 2: time immemorial. A battlefield, the scene of West Asiatic conquest
• 1:33:06
  Speaker 2: and defeat, the Empires of Egypt and Africa. The Lombardy
• 1:33:11
  Speaker 2: of the Orient, the forum of Eastern and Western civilizations,
• 1:33:15
  Speaker 2: the converging point of Far Eastern trade, emporium for other
• 1:33:20
  Speaker 2: Mediterranean nations and the Far West. The Phoenician era, Tire
• 1:33:25
  Speaker 2: and Sidon colonies. The place of ancient Syria in letters,
• 1:33:30
  Speaker 2: art and politics. Oregraphical formation, rivers, table lands, the Great
• 1:33:36
  Speaker 2: Steppe vegetation, geological formation, Cretaceous limestone of the plateau, basaltic peaks,
• 1:33:45
  Speaker 2: alluvial lands, clay soils of the steppe. Political geography pre
• 1:33:50
  Speaker 2: Egyptian inhabitants, Egyptian conquest, a subject state of Assyria, Babylonia, Persia,
• 1:33:58
  Speaker 2: the inheritance of the Greek General of Alexander, Armenian and
• 1:34:02
  Speaker 2: Parthian masters becomes part of the world. Empire of Rome,
• 1:34:07
  Speaker 2: Chief Bizarre and Art Museum of the Empire, The causes
• 1:34:11
  Speaker 2: of its decline and early conquest by Arab invaders, Islam
• 1:34:15
  Speaker 2: and Syria. March twenty second. Tire and Sidon by Professor
• 1:34:21
  Speaker 2: Thomas Davidson, m A of Brooklyn, New York. The Phoenicians
• 1:34:26
  Speaker 2: a branch of the Semites. The Semitic character and form
• 1:34:30
  Speaker 2: of social union, religion, devotion to industry and trade. The
• 1:34:35
  Speaker 2: extent of Semitic civilization Homeric Greece and the civilization of
• 1:34:40
  Speaker 2: Agamemnon Semitic. The Semitic character as affected by surroundings by
• 1:34:45
  Speaker 2: the desert, Arabs, by the fertile land Babylonians, et cetera,
• 1:34:51
  Speaker 2: by mountains and sea Phoenicians Phoenicians unmorelike but enterprising nature
• 1:34:56
  Speaker 2: of their civilization. Industry and trade, two phases of Phoenician civilization,
• 1:35:03
  Speaker 2: represented by Seidon and Tire in the West. We can
• 1:35:06
  Speaker 2: trace the former by the deities Poseidon I e. Baal
• 1:35:11
  Speaker 2: Sitan and Aphrotrite I e Aphrodite, the latter Heracles melcarth
• 1:35:18
  Speaker 2: and Pallace I E. Ballat Athena. The quarrel between Poseidon
• 1:35:23
  Speaker 2: and Pallas. The Parthenon group, the Olympia Metipes, the extent
• 1:35:29
  Speaker 2: of the Phoenician trade and its effect upon the countries
• 1:35:32
  Speaker 2: visited they double the Cape of Good Hope, the Phoenician
• 1:35:36
  Speaker 2: colonies Carthage et cetera, and their civilization, its strength and weakness,
• 1:35:42
  Speaker 2: want of idealism and political sense, the dangers of a
• 1:35:46
  Speaker 2: merely industrial civilization. Why Carthage succumbed to Rome. The world's
• 1:35:51
  Speaker 2: debt to Phoenicia as an example of industrial enterprise unrelieved
• 1:35:56
  Speaker 2: by art, literature, or science. March twenty ninth, Greece, by
• 1:36:01
  Speaker 2: Professor Benjamin Ide Wheeler, l l d. Of Cornell University, Greece.
• 1:36:07
  Speaker 2: How its geography explains its history, its position the outpost
• 1:36:12
  Speaker 2: of Europe, though removed from it by its peninsular form,
• 1:36:16
  Speaker 2: not severed from connection with it. Greek ideas are representative
• 1:36:21
  Speaker 2: occidental ideas, the contrast of Occidentalism and Orientalism. Joined to
• 1:36:27
  Speaker 2: Asia by a bridge of islands and by the navigable
• 1:36:30
  Speaker 2: Aegean hence open to the reception of Eastern ideas and motives,
• 1:36:35
  Speaker 2: but secured in its capability of assimilating them. The extent
• 1:36:39
  Speaker 2: and nature of Eastern influence surrounded by the Mediterranean, hence
• 1:36:44
  Speaker 2: a distributing medium, its primacy in Mediterranean civilization. Relations of
• 1:36:50
  Speaker 2: this civilization to modern European civilization, Its geography, the irregularity
• 1:36:56
  Speaker 2: of its coastline, proximity of all its parts to the US.
• 1:37:00
  Speaker 2: Abundance of sheltered beach harbours, absence of great rivers, contrast
• 1:37:06
  Speaker 2: with the great river civilization of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Partition
• 1:37:11
  Speaker 2: into districts by mountains, features of mountain chains, not impassable barriers,
• 1:37:17
  Speaker 2: plains of limited size. These encourage particularism and a consciousness
• 1:37:22
  Speaker 2: of the power of individual initiative. Plains mostly accessible to
• 1:37:27
  Speaker 2: the sea. Communication by sea rather than by land, encouraged,
• 1:37:32
  Speaker 2: opened outward rather than inward, motive to union, lessened variety
• 1:37:37
  Speaker 2: in relative location of the plains, productive of variety and
• 1:37:40
  Speaker 2: conditions of life, and hence of social and political ideas.
• 1:37:45
  Speaker 2: Greece a mosaic, the islands so numerous as to set
• 1:37:49
  Speaker 2: a standard of political and material existence. Extension of the
• 1:37:53
  Speaker 2: analogy to the Athens of Themistocles and Pericles. Citadels treated
• 1:37:59
  Speaker 2: as islands, its size and the distances between its ports,
• 1:38:03
  Speaker 2: superficial area, distance between important points, roots and methods of communication,
• 1:38:10
  Speaker 2: effective dimensions upon the Greek sense of proportion, and upon
• 1:38:14
  Speaker 2: the stimulation of individual energy, climate and products, temperature and
• 1:38:20
  Speaker 2: contrast of seasons, outdoor life, sociability, democracy, interest in athletics, winds,
• 1:38:28
  Speaker 2: effect on commerce, rainfall and fertility, products of soil bent
• 1:38:33
  Speaker 2: toward commerce rather than agriculture, urban life and attitude toward farmers.
• 1:38:39
  Speaker 2: Important sites cities Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, Athens and their geographical
• 1:38:45
  Speaker 2: characteristics Battlefields, Marathon, Mantinea, Cheronea Salamis, festal places, Olympia, Delphi.
• 1:38:57
  Speaker 2: Impressions of Greek scenery. A Fifth Rome by Reverend doctor
• 1:39:02
  Speaker 2: Alex McKay smith of Washington, d C. The name, its
• 1:39:07
  Speaker 2: significance in history, differentiation from other world forces, its position,
• 1:39:13
  Speaker 2: the people who founded it, environment, mixture of races, the
• 1:39:18
  Speaker 2: resultant in terms of character, The opportunity of Rome, clearing
• 1:39:23
  Speaker 2: the way, the enlargement of power. What the sea did
• 1:39:26
  Speaker 2: for Rome, What Rome did for man? Evolution and involution,
• 1:39:31
  Speaker 2: its growth in certain virtues, the vice of those virtues,
• 1:39:35
  Speaker 2: the virtue of those vices, the wings and claws of
• 1:39:39
  Speaker 2: the eagle, the culmination of glory, the sphere of influence.
• 1:39:43
  Speaker 2: Why the Republic became an empire and the empire waned
• 1:39:48
  Speaker 2: roots and fungi, the Imperial city, its splendor, what it
• 1:39:53
  Speaker 2: stood for, the upheaval of new forces, readjustment, the turning
• 1:39:58
  Speaker 2: over of Europe fresh the barbarian at the gates Medieval Rome,
• 1:40:04
  Speaker 2: its influence, its rationale, its weakness and power, the Renaissance
• 1:40:09
  Speaker 2: old foes with new faces, Its meaning in art and religion,
• 1:40:14
  Speaker 2: reverence and contempt, the dust heap and ant hill, the
• 1:40:18
  Speaker 2: city of to day, the hiding of its power, what
• 1:40:21
  Speaker 2: it means to the scholar, to the artist, to the traveler, characteristics,
• 1:40:26
  Speaker 2: the strength of ruins, the poleimpsets of history. April twelfth
• 1:40:32
  Speaker 2: Constantinople by Professor Edwin A. Grovener of Amherst College, Rome.
• 1:40:38
  Speaker 2: Though able to build up a universal empire, could no
• 1:40:41
  Speaker 2: longer retain her place as the world's capital. Under conditions
• 1:40:45
  Speaker 2: existent at the end of the third century. A change
• 1:40:49
  Speaker 2: of sight was absolutely necessary. A new world capital must
• 1:40:54
  Speaker 2: be planted on some spot possessed of four requisites, the positional,
• 1:40:58
  Speaker 2: the strategic, the material, and the sentimental. Former emperors had
• 1:41:03
  Speaker 2: perceived this fact, but the undertaking was beyond their power.
• 1:41:07
  Speaker 2: The name of Constantine is immortalized and his statesmanship demonstrated
• 1:41:12
  Speaker 2: in that he took definite and decisive action. Only after
• 1:41:16
  Speaker 2: years of disappointed examination did he recognize the one pre
• 1:41:20
  Speaker 2: eminent site. No city chosen by the art of man
• 1:41:24
  Speaker 2: has been so well chosen and so permanent. The history
• 1:41:28
  Speaker 2: and influence the whole being of none other has been
• 1:41:31
  Speaker 2: so determined by physical causes, by environment the spot once selected,
• 1:41:37
  Speaker 2: the city was the creation of nature rather than the
• 1:41:40
  Speaker 2: result of imperial decree. In the hands of its environment,
• 1:41:44
  Speaker 2: it was a passive and by means of its environment,
• 1:41:47
  Speaker 2: an active factor. It gave strength to the empire rather
• 1:41:51
  Speaker 2: than derived strength from the empire. From three hundred thirty
• 1:41:55
  Speaker 2: to twelve hundred four, it was the queen city of
• 1:41:58
  Speaker 2: the world during those tumultuous nine centuries. While every other
• 1:42:02
  Speaker 2: continental city was captured more than once, Constantinople did not
• 1:42:07
  Speaker 2: once succumb to foreign attack. The crowned heir of Rome
• 1:42:11
  Speaker 2: and Italy, it was inevitably the heir of Athens. In Greece, Hellenisimos,
• 1:42:17
  Speaker 2: deserting the Ilissos and Kephisos, found its focal center on
• 1:42:21
  Speaker 2: the banks of the Bosporus, and under the name Byzantine,
• 1:42:25
  Speaker 2: was distinctly Greek. When the world's front changed, Constantinople lost
• 1:42:30
  Speaker 2: for a time its undisputed pre eminence, but has never
• 1:42:34
  Speaker 2: descended to a lower rank than that of capital of
• 1:42:37
  Speaker 2: an empire. During the last centuries, its political importance because
• 1:42:41
  Speaker 2: of its political possibilities has constantly increased. Today, the most
• 1:42:47
  Speaker 2: stupendous problem of state craft is the ultimate fate of Constantinople.
• 1:42:52
  Speaker 2: In case of modifications in the East. Its transference from
• 1:42:56
  Speaker 2: the hands of the Ottomans involves a reorganization and readjustment
• 1:43:01
  Speaker 2: of European interests no less momentous than resulted from the
• 1:43:05
  Speaker 2: wars of the Reformation or of the French Revolution. There
• 1:43:09
  Speaker 2: are but three possible solutions of the problem, none of
• 1:43:13
  Speaker 2: them satisfactory to all, and each distasteful to some one
• 1:43:18
  Speaker 2: or more of the powers most directly concerned. Between these three,
• 1:43:23
  Speaker 2: time is to choose. The lecture will treat as fully
• 1:43:26
  Speaker 2: as possible of the many cited city, but the central
• 1:43:30
  Speaker 2: thought will be its political prominence and destiny. April nineteenth
• 1:43:35
  Speaker 2: Venice and Genoa by Professor William H. Goodyear of the
• 1:43:39
  Speaker 2: Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The German precision and
• 1:43:43
  Speaker 2: the Byzantine culture in Western Europe. The position of Italy
• 1:43:47
  Speaker 2: and medieval history as mediator for Byzantine influence in Europe.
• 1:43:52
  Speaker 2: The Italian towns which were active in this influence, predecessors
• 1:43:56
  Speaker 2: of Venice and Genoa, the mountains of Genoa, The Monuments
• 1:44:00
  Speaker 2: of Venice The Painters of Venice, April twenty six, America.
• 1:44:06
  Speaker 2: Arrangements not completed. These lectures will be delivered in the
• 1:44:10
  Speaker 2: Columbia Theater, Washington, d C. On nine successive Monday afternoons
• 1:44:15
  Speaker 2: commencing March first. Each lecture will be accompanied by lantern
• 1:44:19
  Speaker 2: slide illustrations. End of section seven. End of the National
• 1:44:27
  Speaker 2: Geographic Magazine, Volume eight, February eighteen ninety seven.