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War and Peace Part 7 - Leo Tolstoy · Timeless Leo Tolstoy Stories

• 0:00
  Speaker 1: But here am I, and I am he? And that
• 0:03
  Speaker 1: was unanswerable. It was more than true. During that fortnight
• 0:07
  Speaker 1: of anxiety, Natasha resorted to the baby for comfort so
• 0:10
  Speaker 1: often and fussed over him so much that she overfed
• 0:13
  Speaker 1: him and he fell ill. She was terrified by his illness,
• 0:17
  Speaker 1: and yet that was just what she needed. While attending
• 0:21
  Speaker 1: to him, she bore the anxiety about her husband more easily.
• 0:24
  Speaker 1: She was nursing her boy when the sound of Pierre's
• 0:28
  Speaker 1: sleigh was heard at the front door, and the old nurse,
• 0:31
  Speaker 1: knowing how to please her mistress, entered the room inaudibly
• 0:34
  Speaker 1: but hurriedly and with a beaming face. Has he come,
• 0:38
  Speaker 1: Natasha asked quickly in a whisper, afraid to move lest
• 0:41
  Speaker 1: she should rouse the dozing baby. He's come, ma'am, whispered
• 0:45
  Speaker 1: the nurse. The blood rushed in Natasha's face, and her
• 0:49
  Speaker 1: feet involuntarily moved, but she could not jump up and
• 0:53
  Speaker 1: run out. The baby again opened his eyes and looked
• 0:56
  Speaker 1: at her. You're here, he seemed to be saying, and again,
• 1:00
  Speaker 1: and lazily smacked his lips. Cautiously, withdrawing her breast, Natasha
• 1:04
  Speaker 1: robbed him a little, handed him to the nurse and
• 1:07
  Speaker 1: went with rapid steps towards the door, But at the
• 1:10
  Speaker 1: door she stopped, as if her conscience reproached her for having,
• 1:13
  Speaker 1: in her joy left the child too soon, and she
• 1:15
  Speaker 1: glanced round. The nurse, with raised elbows, was lifting the
• 1:19
  Speaker 1: infant over the rail of his cot. Go, ma'am, don't worry, go,
• 1:25
  Speaker 1: she whispered, smiling with a kind of familiarity that grows
• 1:27
  Speaker 1: up between a nurse and her mistress. Natasha ran with
• 1:31
  Speaker 1: light footsteps to the anteroom. Denisov, who had come out
• 1:35
  Speaker 1: of the study into the dancing room with his pipe,
• 1:37
  Speaker 1: now for the first time, recognized the old Natasha. A
• 1:41
  Speaker 1: flirt of brilliant, joyful light poured from her transfigured face.
• 1:45
  Speaker 1: He's come, she exclaimed as she ran past, and Denisov
• 1:49
  Speaker 1: felt that he too was delighted at Pierre, whom he
• 1:52
  Speaker 1: did not much care for, had returned. On reaching the vestibule,
• 1:56
  Speaker 1: Natasha saw a tall figure in a fur coat and
• 1:59
  Speaker 1: winding his scar. It's he, It's really he, he has come,
• 2:04
  Speaker 1: she said to herself, and, rushing at him, embraced him,
• 2:07
  Speaker 1: pressed his head to her breast, and then pushed him
• 2:10
  Speaker 1: back and gazed at his ruddy, happy face covered with hoarfrost. Yes,
• 2:15
  Speaker 1: it is he happy and contented. Then all at once
• 2:19
  Speaker 1: she remembered the tortures of suspense she had experienced for
• 2:23
  Speaker 1: the last fortnight, and the joy that had lit up
• 2:26
  Speaker 1: her face vanished. She frowned and overwhelmed Pierre with a
• 2:30
  Speaker 1: torrent of reproaches and angry words. Yes, it's all very
• 2:34
  Speaker 1: well for you. You are pleased, you've had a good time,
• 2:37
  Speaker 1: But what about me? You might at least have shown
• 2:39
  Speaker 1: consideration for the children I'm nursing, and my milk was spoilt.
• 2:43
  Speaker 1: Petya was at death's door, But you were enjoying yourself. Yes,
• 2:46
  Speaker 1: enjoy Pierre knew he was not to blame, for he
• 2:50
  Speaker 1: could not have come sooner. He knew this outburst was
• 2:53
  Speaker 1: unseemly and would blow over in a minute or two.
• 2:56
  Speaker 1: Above all, he knew that he himself was bright and happy.
• 3:00
  Speaker 1: He wanted to smile, but dared not even think of
• 3:03
  Speaker 1: doing so. He made a piteous, frightened face and bent down.
• 3:07
  Speaker 1: I could not on my honor, But how is Petya
• 3:10
  Speaker 1: all right? Now? Come along? I wonder you're not ashamed?
• 3:13
  Speaker 1: If only you could see what I was like without
• 3:15
  Speaker 1: you how I suffered. You are well. Come, Come, she said,
• 3:21
  Speaker 1: not letting go of his arm, and they went to
• 3:22
  Speaker 1: their rooms. When Nicholas and his wife came to look
• 3:26
  Speaker 1: for Pierre, he was in the nursery holding his baby son,
• 3:29
  Speaker 1: who was again awake on his huge right palm and
• 3:32
  Speaker 1: damdling him. A blissful, bright smile was fixed on the
• 3:36
  Speaker 1: baby's broad face with its toothless open mouth. The storm
• 3:40
  Speaker 1: was long since over, and there was bright, joyous sunshine
• 3:43
  Speaker 1: on Natasha's face as she gazed tenderly at her husband
• 3:46
  Speaker 1: and child. And have you talked everything well over with
• 3:49
  Speaker 1: Prince Theodore? She asked, yes, capitally, you see he holds
• 3:54
  Speaker 1: it up. She want the baby's head. But how he
• 3:57
  Speaker 1: did frighten me? You've seen the princess. Is it true
• 4:00
  Speaker 1: she's in love with that? Yes? Just fancy. At that
• 4:04
  Speaker 1: moment Nicholas and Countess Mary came in. Pierre, with the
• 4:08
  Speaker 1: baby on his hand, stooped, kissed them and replied to
• 4:10
  Speaker 1: their inquiries. But in spite of much that was interesting
• 4:15
  Speaker 1: and had to be discussed, the baby, with a little
• 4:17
  Speaker 1: cap on its unsteady head, evidently absorbed all his attention.
• 4:21
  Speaker 1: How sweet, said Countess Mary, looking at and playing with
• 4:25
  Speaker 1: the baby. Now, Nicholas, she added, turning to her husband,
• 4:29
  Speaker 1: I can't understand how it is you don't see the
• 4:31
  Speaker 1: charm of these delicious marvels. I don't and can't, replied Nicholas,
• 4:36
  Speaker 1: looking coldly at the baby. A lump of flesh come
• 4:39
  Speaker 1: along Pierre, And yet he's such an affectionate father, said
• 4:43
  Speaker 1: Countess Mary, vindicating her husband. But only after they are
• 4:47
  Speaker 1: a year old or so. Now Pierre nurses them splendidly,
• 4:51
  Speaker 1: said Natasha. He says, his hand is just made for
• 4:54
  Speaker 1: a baby's seat. Just look. Only not for this, Pierre
• 4:58
  Speaker 1: suddenly exclaimed, with a laugh and shifting the baby, he
• 5:00
  Speaker 1: gave him to the nurse. End of chapter eleven.
• 5:04
  Speaker 2: As in every large household, there were at bald Hills
• 5:08
  Speaker 2: several perfectly distinct worlds which merged into one harmonious whole,
• 5:14
  Speaker 2: though each retained its own peculiarities and made concessions to
• 5:18
  Speaker 2: the others. Every event, joyful or sad, that took place
• 5:23
  Speaker 2: in that house was important to all these worlds, but
• 5:27
  Speaker 2: each had its own special reasons to rejoice or grieve
• 5:30
  Speaker 2: over that occurrence, independently of the others. For instance, Pierre's
• 5:35
  Speaker 2: return was a joyful and important event, and they all
• 5:39
  Speaker 2: felt it to be so. The servants, the most reliable
• 5:43
  Speaker 2: judges of their masters, because they judged not by their
• 5:46
  Speaker 2: conversation or expressions of feeling, but by their acts and
• 5:51
  Speaker 2: way of life, were glad of Pierre's return because they
• 5:54
  Speaker 2: knew that when he was there, Count Nicholas would cease
• 5:58
  Speaker 2: going every day to attend to the estate, and would
• 6:01
  Speaker 2: be in better spirits and temper, and also because they
• 6:04
  Speaker 2: would all receive handsome presents for the holidays. The children
• 6:08
  Speaker 2: and their governesses were glad of Pierre's return because no
• 6:11
  Speaker 2: one else drew them into the social life of the
• 6:14
  Speaker 2: household as he did. He alone could play on the
• 6:16
  Speaker 2: clavichord that Ecossais his only peace, to which, as he said,
• 6:21
  Speaker 2: all possible dances could be danced, and they felt sure
• 6:25
  Speaker 2: he had brought presents for them all. Young Nicholas, now
• 6:29
  Speaker 2: a slim lad of fifteen, delicate and intelligent, with curly,
• 6:33
  Speaker 2: light brown hair and beautiful eyes, was delighted because Uncle Pierre,
• 6:39
  Speaker 2: as he caught him, was the object of his rapturous
• 6:42
  Speaker 2: and passionate affection. No one had instilled into him this
• 6:46
  Speaker 2: love for Pierre, whom he saw only occasionally. Countess Mary,
• 6:50
  Speaker 2: who had brought him up, had done her utmost to
• 6:53
  Speaker 2: make him love her husband as she loved him, And
• 6:56
  Speaker 2: little Nicholas did love his uncle, but loved him with
• 6:59
  Speaker 2: just the shade of contempt. Pierre, however, he adored. He
• 7:04
  Speaker 2: did not want to be a hussar or a knight
• 7:07
  Speaker 2: of Saint George like his uncle Nicholas. He wanted to
• 7:10
  Speaker 2: be learned, wise and kind like Pierre. In Pierre's presence,
• 7:15
  Speaker 2: his face always shone with pleasure, and he flushed and
• 7:19
  Speaker 2: was breathless. When Pierre spoke to him. He did not
• 7:21
  Speaker 2: miss a single word. He uttered, and would afterwards with
• 7:25
  Speaker 2: Dessahles or by himself, recall and consider the meaning of
• 7:28
  Speaker 2: everything Pierre had said, Pierre's past life and his unhappiness
• 7:33
  Speaker 2: prior to eighteen twelve, of which young Nicholas had formed
• 7:36
  Speaker 2: a vague poetic picture from some words he had overheard,
• 7:40
  Speaker 2: his adventures in Moscow, his captivity Platon Karatiev, of whom
• 7:45
  Speaker 2: he had heard from Pierre, his love for Natasha, of
• 7:49
  Speaker 2: whom the lad was also particularly fond, and especially Pierre's
• 7:53
  Speaker 2: friendship with the father whom Nicholas could not remember. All
• 7:57
  Speaker 2: this made Pierre, in his eyes, a hero and a saint.
• 8:02
  Speaker 2: From broken remarks about Natasha and his father, from the
• 8:05
  Speaker 2: emotion with which Pierre spoke of that dead father, and
• 8:09
  Speaker 2: from the careful, reverent tenderness with which Natasha spoke of him,
• 8:14
  Speaker 2: The boy, who was only just beginning to guess what
• 8:17
  Speaker 2: love is, derived the notion that his father had loved Natasha,
• 8:22
  Speaker 2: and when dying, had left her to his friend. But
• 8:26
  Speaker 2: the father, whom the boy did not remember, appeared to
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  Speaker 2: him a divinity who could not be pictured, and of
• 8:32
  Speaker 2: whom he never thought without a swelling heart and tears
• 8:35
  Speaker 2: of sadness and rapture. So the boy also was happy
• 8:39
  Speaker 2: that Pierre had arrived. The guests welcomed Pierre because he
• 8:44
  Speaker 2: always helped to enliven and unite any company he was in.
• 8:48
  Speaker 2: The grown up members of the family, not to mention
• 8:50
  Speaker 2: his wife, were pleased to have back a friend whose
• 8:53
  Speaker 2: presence made life run more smoothly and peacefully. The old
• 8:57
  Speaker 2: ladies were pleased with the presents he brought them, and
• 9:00
  Speaker 2: especially that Natasha would now be herself again. Pierre felt
• 9:05
  Speaker 2: the different outlooks of these various worlds and made haste
• 9:09
  Speaker 2: to satisfy all their expectations. Though the most absent minded
• 9:13
  Speaker 2: and forgetful of men, Pierre, with the aid of a
• 9:16
  Speaker 2: list his wife drew up, had now bought everything, not
• 9:20
  Speaker 2: forgetting his mother and brother in law's commissions, nor the
• 9:24
  Speaker 2: dress material for a present to belover, nor toys for
• 9:27
  Speaker 2: his wife's nephews. In the early days of his marriage,
• 9:31
  Speaker 2: it had seemed strange to him that his wife should
• 9:33
  Speaker 2: expect him not to forget to procure all the things
• 9:36
  Speaker 2: he undertook to buy, and he had been taken aback
• 9:39
  Speaker 2: by her serious annoyance when on his first trip he
• 9:42
  Speaker 2: forgot everything. But in time he grew used to this demand,
• 9:46
  Speaker 2: knowing that Natasha asked nothing for herself and gave him
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  Speaker 2: commissions for others only when he himself had offered to
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  Speaker 2: undertake them. He now found an unexpected and childlike pleasure
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  Speaker 2: in this purchasing of presents for fi everyone in the house,
• 10:01
  Speaker 2: and never forgot anything. If he now incurred Natasha's censure,
• 10:06
  Speaker 2: it was only for buying too many and too expensive
• 10:09
  Speaker 2: things to her. Other defects as most people thought them,
• 10:13
  Speaker 2: but which to Pierre were qualities of untidiness and neglect
• 10:17
  Speaker 2: of herself. She now added stinginess. From the time that
• 10:22
  Speaker 2: Pierre began life as a family man on a footing
• 10:25
  Speaker 2: entailing heavy expenditure, he had noticed, to his surprise that
• 10:29
  Speaker 2: he spent only half as much as before, and that
• 10:33
  Speaker 2: his affairs, which had been in disorder of late, chiefly
• 10:36
  Speaker 2: because of his first wife's debts, had begun to improve.
• 10:40
  Speaker 2: Life was cheaper because it was circumscribed that most expensive luxury,
• 10:45
  Speaker 2: the kind of life that can be changed at any moment,
• 10:49
  Speaker 2: was no longer his, nor did he wish for it.
• 10:52
  Speaker 2: He felt that his way of life had now been
• 10:55
  Speaker 2: settled once for all till death, and that to change
• 10:58
  Speaker 2: it was not in his power, and so that way
• 11:01
  Speaker 2: of life proved economical. With a merry, smiling face, Pierre
• 11:07
  Speaker 2: was sorting his purchases. What do you think of this,
• 11:11
  Speaker 2: said he, unrolling a piece of stuff like a shopman. Natasha,
• 11:16
  Speaker 2: who was sitting opposite to him with her eldest daughter
• 11:19
  Speaker 2: on her lap, turned her sparkling eyes swiftly from her
• 11:23
  Speaker 2: husband to the things he showed her. That's for Belova, excellent,
• 11:29
  Speaker 2: she felt the quality of the material it was a
• 11:32
  Speaker 2: rouble and arshin. I suppose Pierre told her the price
• 11:37
  Speaker 2: too dear. Natasha remarked, how pleased the children will be,
• 11:41
  Speaker 2: and Mamma too. Only you need not have brought me this,
• 11:45
  Speaker 2: she added, unable to suppress a smile as she gazed
• 11:49
  Speaker 2: admiringly at a gold comb set with pearls of a
• 11:53
  Speaker 2: kind then just coming into fashion. Adele tempted me. She
• 11:58
  Speaker 2: kept on telling me to buy it, returned Pierre, When
• 12:02
  Speaker 2: am I to wear it? And Natasha stuck it in
• 12:05
  Speaker 2: her curl of hair. When I take little Masha into society,
• 12:09
  Speaker 2: perhaps they will be fashionable again by then. Well, let's
• 12:14
  Speaker 2: go now, and collecting the presents, they went first to
• 12:17
  Speaker 2: the nursery and then to the old countess rooms. The
• 12:21
  Speaker 2: countess was sitting with her companion Belova, playing grand patients
• 12:26
  Speaker 2: as usual, when Pierre and Natasha came into the drawing
• 12:29
  Speaker 2: room with parcels under their arms. The countess was now
• 12:33
  Speaker 2: over sixty, was quite gray, and wore a cap with
• 12:37
  Speaker 2: a frill that surrounded her face. Her face had shriveled,
• 12:41
  Speaker 2: her upper lip had sunk in, and her eyes were dim.
• 12:46
  Speaker 2: After the deaths of her son and husband in such
• 12:49
  Speaker 2: rapid succession, she felt herself a being accidentally forgotten in
• 12:53
  Speaker 2: this world and left without aim or object for her existence.
• 12:58
  Speaker 2: She ate, drank, so slept, or kept awake, but did
• 13:02
  Speaker 2: not live. Life gave her no new impressions. She wanted
• 13:07
  Speaker 2: nothing from life but tranquility, and that tranquility only death
• 13:11
  Speaker 2: could give her. But until death came, she had to
• 13:15
  Speaker 2: go on living, that is, to use her vital forces.
• 13:19
  Speaker 2: A peculiarity one sees in very young children and very
• 13:23
  Speaker 2: old people was particularly evident in her. Her life had
• 13:28
  Speaker 2: no external aims, Only a need to exercise her various
• 13:31
  Speaker 2: functions and inclinations was apparent. She had to eat, sleep, think, speak, weep, work,
• 13:40
  Speaker 2: give vent to her anger, and so on, merely because
• 13:44
  Speaker 2: she had a stomach, a brain, muscles, nerves, and a liver.
• 13:48
  Speaker 2: She did these things not under any external impulse, as
• 13:52
  Speaker 2: people of the full vigor of life do when behind
• 13:55
  Speaker 2: the purpose for which they strive, that of exercising their functions,
• 13:58
  Speaker 2: remains unnoticed. She talked only because she physically needed to
• 14:03
  Speaker 2: exercise her tongue and lungs. She cried as a child
• 14:07
  Speaker 2: does because her nose had to be cleared, and so on.
• 14:11
  Speaker 2: What for people in their full vigor is an aim
• 14:15
  Speaker 2: was for her, evidently merely a pretext. Nurse in the morning,
• 14:20
  Speaker 2: especially if she had eaten anything rich the day before,
• 14:23
  Speaker 2: she felt a need of being angry and would choose
• 14:26
  Speaker 2: as the handiest pretext belover's deafness. She would begin to
• 14:31
  Speaker 2: say something to her in a low tone from the
• 14:33
  Speaker 2: other end of the room. It seems a little warmer
• 14:36
  Speaker 2: to day, my dear, she would murmur, and when Belovoa replied, Oh, yes,
• 14:42
  Speaker 2: they've come, she would mutter angrily, Oh Lord, how stupid
• 14:47
  Speaker 2: and deaf she is. Another pretext would be her snuff,
• 14:52
  Speaker 2: which would seem too dry or too damp, or not
• 14:55
  Speaker 2: rubbed fine enough. After these fits of irritability, her face
• 15:00
  Speaker 2: would grow yellow, and her maids knew by infallible symptoms.
• 15:05
  Speaker 2: When Belova would be deaf, the snuff damp, and the
• 15:09
  Speaker 2: countess face yellow. Just as she needed to work off
• 15:12
  Speaker 2: her spleen, so she had sometimes to exercise her still
• 15:17
  Speaker 2: existing faculty of thinking, and the pretext for that was
• 15:21
  Speaker 2: a game of patience. When she needed to cry, the
• 15:25
  Speaker 2: deceased count would be the pretext. When she wanted to
• 15:28
  Speaker 2: be agitated, Nicholas and his health would be the pretext.
• 15:33
  Speaker 2: And when she felt a need to speak spitefully. The
• 15:36
  Speaker 2: pretext would be Countess Mary when her vocal organs needed exercise,
• 15:41
  Speaker 2: which was usually towards seven o'clock, when she had had
• 15:44
  Speaker 2: an after dinner rest in a darkened room, the pretext
• 15:48
  Speaker 2: would be the retelling of the same stories over and
• 15:51
  Speaker 2: over again to the same audience. The old lady's condition
• 15:56
  Speaker 2: was understood by the whole household, though no one ever
• 15:59
  Speaker 2: spoke of it, and they all made every possible effort
• 16:03
  Speaker 2: to satisfy her needs. Only by a rare glance exchanged
• 16:07
  Speaker 2: with a sad smile between Nicholas Pierre, Natasha and Countess
• 16:12
  Speaker 2: Mary was the common understanding of her condition expressed. But
• 16:16
  Speaker 2: these glances expressed something more. They said that she had
• 16:21
  Speaker 2: played her part in life, that what they now saw
• 16:24
  Speaker 2: was not her whole self, that we must all become
• 16:28
  Speaker 2: like her, and that they were glad to yield to her,
• 16:32
  Speaker 2: to restrain themselves for this once precious being, formerly as
• 16:36
  Speaker 2: full of life as themselves, but now so much to
• 16:40
  Speaker 2: be pitied. Memento Maury said these glances only the really heartless,
• 16:46
  Speaker 2: the stupid ones of that household, and the little children
• 16:50
  Speaker 2: failed to understand this and avoided her end of chapter twelve.
• 16:56
  Speaker 1: When Pierre and his wife entered the drawing room, the
• 17:00
  Speaker 1: Countess was in one of her customary states in which
• 17:03
  Speaker 1: she needed the mental exertion of playing patients, and so
• 17:06
  Speaker 1: though by force of habit, she greeted him with the
• 17:08
  Speaker 1: words she always used when Pierre or her son returned
• 17:11
  Speaker 1: after an absence, high time, my dear, high time, we
• 17:14
  Speaker 1: were all weary of waiting for you. Well, thank God,
• 17:17
  Speaker 1: and received her presents with another customary remark, it's not
• 17:20
  Speaker 1: a gift that's precious, my dear, but that you give
• 17:22
  Speaker 1: it to me an old woman. Yet it was evident
• 17:25
  Speaker 1: that she was not pleased by Pierre's arrival at that moment,
• 17:28
  Speaker 1: when it diverted her attention from the unfinished game. She
• 17:32
  Speaker 1: finished her game of patience and only then examined the presence.
• 17:36
  Speaker 1: They consisted of a box for cards, a splendid workmanship,
• 17:40
  Speaker 1: a bright blue Sevre teacup with shepherdesses depicted on it
• 17:43
  Speaker 1: and with a lid, and a gold snuff box with
• 17:46
  Speaker 1: the Count's portrait on the lid, which Pierre had had
• 17:49
  Speaker 1: done by a miniaturist in Petersburg. The countess had long
• 17:53
  Speaker 1: wished for such a box, but as she did not
• 17:55
  Speaker 1: want to cry. Just then, she glanced indifferently at the
• 17:58
  Speaker 1: portrait and gave her to entience, chiefly to the box
• 18:01
  Speaker 1: for cards. Thank you, my dear. You have cheered me up,
• 18:04
  Speaker 1: said she, as she always did. But best of all,
• 18:07
  Speaker 1: you have brought yourself back, for I never saw anything
• 18:10
  Speaker 1: like it. You ought to give your wife a scolding.
• 18:13
  Speaker 1: What are we to do with her? She is like
• 18:15
  Speaker 1: a mad woman when you were away. Doesn't see anything,
• 18:18
  Speaker 1: doesn't remember anything. She went on, repeating her usual phrases. Look, Anna, Timofeyevna,
• 18:24
  Speaker 1: she added to her companion, See what a box for
• 18:27
  Speaker 1: cards my son has brought us. Belova admired the presence
• 18:31
  Speaker 1: and was delighted with her dress material, though Pierre, Natasha
• 18:36
  Speaker 1: and Nicholas, Countess Mary and Denisov had much to talk
• 18:39
  Speaker 1: about that they could not discuss before the old countess,
• 18:43
  Speaker 1: not that anything was hidden from her, but because she
• 18:45
  Speaker 1: had dropped so far behindhand in many things that had
• 18:48
  Speaker 1: they begun to converse in her presence, they would have
• 18:51
  Speaker 1: had to answer imboper tune questions and to repeat what
• 18:55
  Speaker 1: they had already told her many times, that so and
• 18:57
  Speaker 1: so was dead, and so and so was married, which
• 19:00
  Speaker 1: she would again be unable to remember. Yet they sat
• 19:03
  Speaker 1: at tea round the samovar in the drawing room from
• 19:05
  Speaker 1: habit and Pierre answered the Countess's questions as to whether
• 19:09
  Speaker 1: Prince Vasili had aged, and whether Countess Marya Alexeyevna had
• 19:13
  Speaker 1: sent greetings and still thought of them, and other matters
• 19:16
  Speaker 1: that interested no one and to which she herself was indifferent.
• 19:19
  Speaker 1: Conversation of this kind, interesting to no one yet unavoidable,
• 19:24
  Speaker 1: continued all through tea time. All the grown up members
• 19:27
  Speaker 1: of the family were assembled near the round tea table
• 19:30
  Speaker 1: at which Sonya presided beside the samovar. The children, with
• 19:34
  Speaker 1: their tutors and governesses, had had tea, and their voices
• 19:37
  Speaker 1: were audible from the next room. At tea, all sat
• 19:40
  Speaker 1: in their accustomed places, Nicholas beside the stove at a
• 19:44
  Speaker 1: small table where his tea was handed to him. Milka,
• 19:47
  Speaker 1: the old gray Bozoi bitch, daughter of the first Milka,
• 19:51
  Speaker 1: with a quite gray face and large black eyes that
• 19:53
  Speaker 1: seemed more prominent than ever, lay on the arm chair
• 19:56
  Speaker 1: beside him. Denisov, whose curly hair, mustache, and whis wiskers
• 20:00
  Speaker 1: had turned half gray, sat beside Countess Mary with his
• 20:03
  Speaker 1: general's tunic unbuttoned, Pierre sat between his wife and the
• 20:07
  Speaker 1: old Countess. He spoke of what he knew might interest
• 20:10
  Speaker 1: the old lady and that she could understand. He told her,
• 20:13
  Speaker 1: were external social events, and of the people who had
• 20:16
  Speaker 1: formed the circle of her contemporaries and had once been
• 20:18
  Speaker 1: a real, living and distinct group, but who were now,
• 20:21
  Speaker 1: for the most parts scattered about the world, and like herself,
• 20:25
  Speaker 1: were garnering the last ears of the harvests they had
• 20:27
  Speaker 1: sown in earlier years. But to the old Countess these
• 20:30
  Speaker 1: contemporaries of hers seemed to be the only serious and
• 20:34
  Speaker 1: real society. Natasha saw by Pierre's animation that his visit
• 20:39
  Speaker 1: had been interesting and that he had much to tell them,
• 20:42
  Speaker 1: but dare not say it before The old Countess Denisov,
• 20:46
  Speaker 1: not being a member of the family, did not understand
• 20:49
  Speaker 1: Pierre's caution, and, being as a malcontent much interested in
• 20:53
  Speaker 1: what was occurring in Petersburg, kept urging Pierre to tell
• 20:56
  Speaker 1: them about what had happened in the Semenovsk region, then
• 21:01
  Speaker 1: about Araktcheyev, and then about the Bible society. Once or
• 21:05
  Speaker 1: twice Pierre was carried away and began to speak of
• 21:08
  Speaker 1: these things, but Nicholas and Natasha always brought him back
• 21:12
  Speaker 1: to the health of Prince Ivan and Countess Mary Alexeyevna. Well,
• 21:16
  Speaker 1: and all this idiocy Gossner and Tatawinova, Denisov asked, is
• 21:21
  Speaker 1: that really still going on? Going on? Pierre exclaimed, Why,
• 21:26
  Speaker 1: more than ever, the Bible society is the whole government.
• 21:29
  Speaker 2: Now?
• 21:30
  Speaker 1: What is that? Moucherhamy asked the Countess, who had finished
• 21:34
  Speaker 1: her tea and evidently needed a pretext for being angry
• 21:37
  Speaker 1: after her meal. What are you saying about the government.
• 21:40
  Speaker 1: I don't understand. Well, you know, Mamma, Nicholas interposed, knowing
• 21:45
  Speaker 1: how to translate things into his mother's language. Prince Alexander
• 21:48
  Speaker 1: Golitzin has founded a society and in consequence has great influence,
• 21:52
  Speaker 1: they say, Araktaiev and Golitzin incautiously remarked Pierre. Another whole government,
• 21:58
  Speaker 1: and what a government? They see treason everywhere and afraid
• 22:01
  Speaker 1: of everything. Well, and how is Prince Alexander to blame?
• 22:06
  Speaker 1: He is a most estimable man. I used to meet
• 22:09
  Speaker 1: him at Mary Antonovna's, said the Countess in an offended tone,
• 22:13
  Speaker 1: and still more offender that they all remained silent. She
• 22:16
  Speaker 1: went on, nowadays everyone finds fault a gospel society well,
• 22:21
  Speaker 1: and what harm is there in that? And she rose,
• 22:23
  Speaker 1: everybody else got up to and with a severe expression,
• 22:26
  Speaker 1: sailed back to her table in the sitting room. The
• 22:29
  Speaker 1: melancholy silence that followed was broken by the sounds of
• 22:32
  Speaker 1: the children's voices and laughter from the next room. Evidently
• 22:36
  Speaker 1: some jolly excitement was going on there, finished finished little
• 22:40
  Speaker 1: Natasha's gleeful yell rose above them all. Pierre exchanged glances
• 22:44
  Speaker 1: with Countess Mary and Nicholas Natasha he never lost sight of,
• 22:48
  Speaker 1: and smiled happily. That's delightful music, said he. It means
• 22:53
  Speaker 1: that Anna Makarovna has finished her stocking, said Countess Mary. Oh,
• 22:58
  Speaker 1: I'll go and see, said Pierre, jumping up. You know,
• 23:01
  Speaker 1: he added, stopping at the door. Why I am especially
• 23:04
  Speaker 1: fond of that music. It is always the first thing
• 23:07
  Speaker 1: that tells me all is well. When I was driving
• 23:09
  Speaker 1: here to day, the nearer I got to the house,
• 23:11
  Speaker 1: the more anxious I grew. As I entered the anting room,
• 23:14
  Speaker 1: my head and Rusha's peals of laughter, And that meant
• 23:17
  Speaker 1: that all was well. I know, I know that feeling,
• 23:20
  Speaker 1: said Nicholas. But I mustn't go there. Those stockings are
• 23:24
  Speaker 1: to be a surprise for me. Pierre went to the children,
• 23:27
  Speaker 1: and the shouting and laughter grew still louder. Come, Anna Makarovna.
• 23:32
  Speaker 1: Pierre's voice was heard saying, come here, into the middle
• 23:34
  Speaker 1: of the room, and at the word of command, one two,
• 23:37
  Speaker 1: and when I say three, you stand here, and you
• 23:40
  Speaker 1: and my aunt's well now. One two, said Pierre in
• 23:43
  Speaker 1: a silence. Followed three, and a rapturously breathless cry of
• 23:47
  Speaker 1: children's voices filled the room. Two two, they shouted. This
• 23:52
  Speaker 1: meant two stockings, which, by a secret process known only
• 23:55
  Speaker 1: to herself. Anna Makarovna used to knit at the same
• 23:57
  Speaker 1: time on the same needles, and which were they were ready,
• 24:00
  Speaker 1: she always triumphantly drew one out of the other in
• 24:03
  Speaker 1: the children's presence. End of Chapter thirteen.
• 24:08
  Speaker 3: Soon after this, the children came in to say good night.
• 24:12
  Speaker 3: They kissed everyone, The tutors and governesses made their bows,
• 24:16
  Speaker 3: and they went out. Only young Nicholas and his tutor remained.
• 24:22
  Speaker 3: Dessoul whispered to the boy to come downstairs. No, Monsieur Dessalle,
• 24:26
  Speaker 3: I will ask my aunt to let me stay, replied
• 24:28
  Speaker 3: Nicholas Bolkonski, also in a whisper mataunt, please let me stay,
• 24:33
  Speaker 3: he said, going up to his aunt. His face expressed entreaty, agitation,
• 24:39
  Speaker 3: and ecstasy. Countess Mary glanced at him and turned to Pierre.
• 24:46
  Speaker 3: When you are here, he can't tear himself away, she said,
• 24:50
  Speaker 3: I will bring him to you directly, Monsieur Dessalle. Good night,
• 24:54
  Speaker 3: said Pierre, giving his hand to the Swiss tutor, and
• 24:58
  Speaker 3: he turned to young Nicholas with a smile. You and
• 25:01
  Speaker 3: I haven't seen anything of one another yet. How like
• 25:04
  Speaker 3: he is growing Mary, he added, addressing Countess Mary, like
• 25:09
  Speaker 3: my father, asked the boy, flushing Crimson and looking up
• 25:12
  Speaker 3: at Pierre with bright, ecstatic eyes. Pierre nodded and went
• 25:18
  Speaker 3: on with what he had been saying. When the children
• 25:20
  Speaker 3: had interrupted, Countess Mary sat down doing woolwork. Natasha did
• 25:26
  Speaker 3: not take her eyes off her husband. Nicholas and denisov
• 25:30
  Speaker 3: Rose asked for their pipes. Smoked went to fetch more
• 25:34
  Speaker 3: tea from Sonya, who sat weary but resolute at the
• 25:37
  Speaker 3: samovar and questioned Pierre. The curly headed, delicate boy sat
• 25:43
  Speaker 3: with shining eyes, unnoticed in a corner starting every now
• 25:47
  Speaker 3: and then and muttering something to himself, and evidently experiencing
• 25:51
  Speaker 3: a new and powerful emotion as he turned his curly head,
• 25:55
  Speaker 3: with his thin neck exposed by his turned down collar,
• 25:58
  Speaker 3: toward the place where Pierre's The conversation turned on the
• 26:03
  Speaker 3: contemporary gossip about those in power, in which most people
• 26:07
  Speaker 3: see the chief interest of home politics. Denisov, dissatisfied with
• 26:13
  Speaker 3: the government on account of his own disappointments in the service,
• 26:16
  Speaker 3: heard with pleasure of the things done in Petersburg, which
• 26:19
  Speaker 3: seemed to him stupid, and made forcible and sharp comments
• 26:22
  Speaker 3: on what Pierre told him one used to have to
• 26:26
  Speaker 3: be a German. Now one must dance with Tatawinova and
• 26:30
  Speaker 3: Madame Kweddener and wei ekta Hausen and the Boethwin. Oh,
• 26:35
  Speaker 3: they should let that fine fellow Bonaparte loose, he'd knock
• 26:39
  Speaker 3: all this nonsense out of them. Fancy giving the command
• 26:42
  Speaker 3: of the Seminov regiment to a fellow like that Schwatz,
• 26:45
  Speaker 3: he cried. Nicholas, though free from Denisov's readiness to find
• 26:50
  Speaker 3: fault with everything, also thought that discussion of the government
• 26:55
  Speaker 3: was a very serious and weighty matter, and the fact
• 26:57
  Speaker 3: that a had been appointed minister of this and be
• 27:00
  Speaker 3: governor general of that, and that the Emperor had said
• 27:03
  Speaker 3: so and so, and this minister so and so seemed
• 27:07
  Speaker 3: to him very important, and so he thought it necessary
• 27:11
  Speaker 3: to take an interest in these things and to question Pierre.
• 27:15
  Speaker 3: The questions put by these two kept the conversation from
• 27:19
  Speaker 3: changing its ordinary character of gossip about the higher government circles.
• 27:24
  Speaker 3: But Natasha, knowing all her husband's ways and ideas, saw
• 27:28
  Speaker 3: that he had long been wishing, but had been unable
• 27:31
  Speaker 3: to divert the conversation to another channel and express his
• 27:34
  Speaker 3: own deeply felt idea, for the sake of which he
• 27:36
  Speaker 3: had gone to Petersburg to consult with his new friend,
• 27:39
  Speaker 3: Prince Theodore. And she helped him by asking how his
• 27:42
  Speaker 3: affairs with Prince Theodore had gone. What was it about,
• 27:47
  Speaker 3: asked Nicholas. Always the same thing, said Pierre, looking round
• 27:51
  Speaker 3: at his listeners. Everybody sees that things are going so
• 27:55
  Speaker 3: badly that they cannot be allowed to go on so,
• 27:58
  Speaker 3: and that it is the duty of all while decent
• 28:00
  Speaker 3: men to counteract it as far as they can. What
• 28:04
  Speaker 3: can decent men do, Nicholas inquired, browning slightly. What can
• 28:09
  Speaker 3: be done?
• 28:10
  Speaker 1: Why?
• 28:10
  Speaker 3: This, come into my study, said Nicholas. Natasha, who had
• 28:16
  Speaker 3: long expected to be fetched to nurse her baby, now
• 28:19
  Speaker 3: heard the nurse calling her and went to the nursery.
• 28:23
  Speaker 3: Countess Mary followed her. The men went into the study,
• 28:28
  Speaker 3: and little Nicholas Bolkonski followed them, unnoticed by his uncle,
• 28:32
  Speaker 3: and sat down at the writing table in a shady
• 28:34
  Speaker 3: corner by the window. Well, what would you do, asked Denisov.
• 28:39
  Speaker 3: Always some fantastic schemes, said Nicholas. Why this began? Pierre
• 28:45
  Speaker 3: not sitting down, but pacing the room, sometimes stopping short,
• 28:50
  Speaker 3: gesticulating and lisping. The position in Petersburg is this? The
• 28:56
  Speaker 3: Emperor does not look into anything. He has abandoned himself
• 28:59
  Speaker 3: altogether to mysticism. Pierre could not tolerate mysticism in anyone.
• 29:05
  Speaker 3: Now he seeks only for peace, and only these people's
• 29:10
  Speaker 3: so fois nilois, without faith or law can give it
• 29:14
  Speaker 3: to him. People who recklessly hack at and strangle everything. Magnitsky,
• 29:19
  Speaker 3: our chief, and Twu ti Kwanti, you will agree that
• 29:23
  Speaker 3: if you did not look after your estates yourself, but
• 29:25
  Speaker 3: only wanted a quiet life, the harsher your steward was
• 29:29
  Speaker 3: the more readily your object might be attained. He said
• 29:32
  Speaker 3: to Nicholas. Well, what does that lead up to, said Nicholas, Well,
• 29:37
  Speaker 3: everything is going to ruin, robbery, in the law courts,
• 29:41
  Speaker 3: in the army, nothing but flogging, drilling and military settlements.
• 29:44
  Speaker 3: The people are tortured, Enlightenment is suppressed. All that is
• 29:48
  Speaker 3: young and honest is crushed. Everyone sees that this cannot
• 29:52
  Speaker 3: go on. Everything is strained to such a degree that
• 29:54
  Speaker 3: it will certainly break, said Pierre, as those who examine
• 29:58
  Speaker 3: the actions of any government have always said since governments began.
• 30:02
  Speaker 3: I told them just one thing in Petersburg, told whom,
• 30:06
  Speaker 3: Well you know whom, said Pierre, with a meaning glance
• 30:09
  Speaker 3: from under his brows. Prince Theodore and all those to
• 30:14
  Speaker 3: encourage culture and philanthropy. Is all very well, of course,
• 30:18
  Speaker 3: the aim is excellent. But in the present circumstances, something
• 30:21
  Speaker 3: else is needed. At that moment, Nicholas noticed the presence
• 30:26
  Speaker 3: of his nephew. His face darkened, and he went up
• 30:29
  Speaker 3: to the boy. Why are you here? Why let him be?
• 30:34
  Speaker 3: Said Pierre, taking Nicholas by the arm and continuing, that
• 30:38
  Speaker 3: is not enough. I told them something else is needed.
• 30:42
  Speaker 3: When you stand expecting the overstrained string to snap at
• 30:45
  Speaker 3: any moment when everyone is expecting the inevitable catastrophe, as
• 30:50
  Speaker 3: many as possible must join hands as closely as they
• 30:53
  Speaker 3: can to withstand the general calamity. Everything that is young
• 30:57
  Speaker 3: and strong is being enticed away and depraved. One is
• 31:00
  Speaker 3: lured by women, another by honors, a third by ambition
• 31:03
  Speaker 3: or money, and they go over to that camp. No
• 31:07
  Speaker 3: independent men such as you or I are left. What
• 31:10
  Speaker 3: I say is widen the scope of our society. Let
• 31:13
  Speaker 3: the modored or not be virtue alone, but independence and
• 31:17
  Speaker 3: action as well. Nicholas, who had left his nephew irritably,
• 31:22
  Speaker 3: pushed up an armchair, sat down in it and listened
• 31:25
  Speaker 3: to Pierre, coughing discontentedly and frowning more and more. But
• 31:30
  Speaker 3: action with what aim? He cried? And what position will
• 31:32
  Speaker 3: you adopt towards the government? Why the position of assistants
• 31:37
  Speaker 3: the society need not be secret if the government allows it.
• 31:41
  Speaker 3: Not merely is it not hostile to government? But is
• 31:43
  Speaker 3: a society of true conservatives a society of gentlemen, And
• 31:47
  Speaker 3: the full meaning of that word. It is only to
• 31:50
  Speaker 3: prevent some Pugachev or other from killing my children and
• 31:54
  Speaker 3: yours and our chief from sending me off to some
• 31:56
  Speaker 3: military settlement. We join hands only for the public welfare
• 32:01
  Speaker 3: and the general safety. Yes, but it's a secret society
• 32:05
  Speaker 3: and therefore a hostile and harmful one which can only
• 32:08
  Speaker 3: cause harm. Why did the Tugenbund, which saved Europe? They
• 32:13
  Speaker 3: did not then venture to suggest that Russia had saved
• 32:16
  Speaker 3: Europe do any harm. The Tugenbund is an alliance of virtue.
• 32:20
  Speaker 3: It is love, mutual help. It is what Christ preached
• 32:24
  Speaker 3: on the Cross. Natasha, who had come in during this conversation,
• 32:28
  Speaker 3: looked joyfully at her husband. It was not what he
• 32:31
  Speaker 3: was saying that pleased her, that did not even interest her,
• 32:34
  Speaker 3: for it seemed to her that it was all extremely simple,
• 32:37
  Speaker 3: and that she had known it a long time. It
• 32:39
  Speaker 3: seemed so to her because she knew that it sprang
• 32:42
  Speaker 3: from Pierre's whole soul. But it was his animated and
• 32:46
  Speaker 3: enthusiastic appearance that made her glad. The boy with the
• 32:50
  Speaker 3: thin neck stretching out from the turn down collar, whom
• 32:54
  Speaker 3: everyone had forgotten, gazed at Pierre with even greater and
• 32:57
  Speaker 3: more rapturous joy. Word of Pierre's burned into his heart,
• 33:02
  Speaker 3: and with the nervous movement of his fingers, he unconsciously
• 33:05
  Speaker 3: broke the sealing wax and quill pins. His hand came
• 33:08
  Speaker 3: upon on his uncle's table. It is not at all
• 33:13
  Speaker 3: what you suppose, but that is what the German Tugenbund
• 33:16
  Speaker 3: was and what I am proposing. No, my friend, the
• 33:21
  Speaker 3: Tugenbund is all very well for the sausage eaters, but
• 33:25
  Speaker 3: I don't understand it and can't even pronounce it, interposed
• 33:29
  Speaker 3: Denisov in a loud and resolute voice. I agree that
• 33:32
  Speaker 3: everything here is watten and hoilble, but the Tugenbund I
• 33:36
  Speaker 3: don't understand. If we're not satisfied, let us have a
• 33:40
  Speaker 3: boot of our own. That's all white jesuit. Buttom, i'm
• 33:46
  Speaker 3: your man. Pierre smiled. Natasha began to laugh, but Nicholas
• 33:50
  Speaker 3: knitted his brows still more and began proving to Pierre
• 33:54
  Speaker 3: that there was no prospect of any great change, and
• 33:57
  Speaker 3: that all the danger he spoke of existed only in
• 33:59
  Speaker 3: his imagination. Pierre maintained the contrary, and as his mental
• 34:04
  Speaker 3: faculties were greater and more resourceful, Nicholas felt himself cornered.
• 34:10
  Speaker 3: This made him still angrier, for he was fully convinced
• 34:13
  Speaker 3: not by reasoning, but by something with him stronger than reason,
• 34:17
  Speaker 3: of the justice of his opinion. I will tell you this,
• 34:21
  Speaker 3: he said, rising and trying with nervously twitching fingers to
• 34:24
  Speaker 3: prop up his pipe in a corner, but finally abandoning
• 34:28
  Speaker 3: the attempt. I can't prove it to you. You say
• 34:31
  Speaker 3: that everything here is rotten and that an overthrow is coming.
• 34:34
  Speaker 3: I don't see it. But you also say that our
• 34:37
  Speaker 3: oath of allegiance is a conditional matter, and to that
• 34:40
  Speaker 3: I reply, you're my best friend, as you know. But
• 34:43
  Speaker 3: if you formed a secret society began working against the government,
• 34:47
  Speaker 3: be it what it may. I know it is my
• 34:49
  Speaker 3: duty to obey the government. And if art Chief ordered
• 34:52
  Speaker 3: me to lead a squadron against you and cut you down,
• 34:55
  Speaker 3: I should not hesitate an instant, but should do it.
• 34:58
  Speaker 3: And you might argue about that as you like. An
• 35:03
  Speaker 3: awkward silence followed these words. Natasha was the first to speak,
• 35:07
  Speaker 3: defending her husband and attacking her brother. Her defense was
• 35:11
  Speaker 3: weak and inapt, but she attained her object. The conversation
• 35:15
  Speaker 3: was resumed, and no longer in the unpleasantly hostile tones
• 35:19
  Speaker 3: of Nicholas's last remark, when they all got up to
• 35:23
  Speaker 3: go into supperer, little Nicholas Bolkonski went up to Pierre
• 35:27
  Speaker 3: pale and with shining radiant eyes, Uncle, Pierre, you know,
• 35:33
  Speaker 3: if Papa were alive, would he agree with you? He asked,
• 35:37
  Speaker 3: And Pierre suddenly realized what a special, independent, complex and
• 35:41
  Speaker 3: powerful process of thought and feeling must have been going
• 35:44
  Speaker 3: on in this boy during that conversation, and remembering all
• 35:47
  Speaker 3: he had said, he regretted that the lad should have
• 35:50
  Speaker 3: heard him he had, however, to give him an answer. Yes,
• 35:54
  Speaker 3: I think so, he said reluctantly, and left the study.
• 36:00
  Speaker 3: Looked down and seemed now for the first time, to
• 36:02
  Speaker 3: notice what he had done to the things on the table.
• 36:05
  Speaker 3: He flushed and went up to Nicholas. Uncle, forgive me.
• 36:08
  Speaker 3: I did that unintentionally, he said, pointing to the broken
• 36:12
  Speaker 3: sealing wax and pins. Nicholas started angrily. All right, all right,
• 36:18
  Speaker 3: he said, throwing the bits under the table, and evidently
• 36:21
  Speaker 3: suppressing his vexation with difficulty. He turned away from the boy.
• 36:26
  Speaker 3: You ought not to have been here at all, he said.
• 36:32
  Speaker 3: End of chapter fourteen.
• 36:34
  Speaker 1: The conversation at supper was not about politics or societies,
• 36:38
  Speaker 1: but turned on the subject Nicholas liked best recollections of
• 36:42
  Speaker 1: eighteen twelve. Denisov started these, and Pierre was particularly agreeable
• 36:47
  Speaker 1: and amusing about them. The family separated on the most
• 36:51
  Speaker 1: friendly terms. After supper. Nicholas, having undressed in his study
• 36:56
  Speaker 1: and given instructions to the steward who had been waiting
• 36:59
  Speaker 1: for him, went to the bedroom in his dressing gown,
• 37:02
  Speaker 1: where he found his wife still at her table writing.
• 37:06
  Speaker 1: What are you writing, Mary, Nicholas asked. Countess Mary blushed.
• 37:12
  Speaker 1: She was afraid that what she was writing would not
• 37:15
  Speaker 1: be understood or approved by her husband. She had wanted
• 37:18
  Speaker 1: to conceal what she was writing from him, but at
• 37:21
  Speaker 1: the same time was glad he had surprised her at it,
• 37:24
  Speaker 1: and that she would now have to tell him a diary, Nicholas,
• 37:30
  Speaker 1: she replied, handing him a blue exercise book filled with
• 37:33
  Speaker 1: her firm bold Writing a diary, Nicholas repeated with a
• 37:38
  Speaker 1: shade of irony, and he took up the book. It
• 37:41
  Speaker 1: was in French December fourth to day when and Russia,
• 37:46
  Speaker 1: her eldest boy, woke up. He did not wish to dress,
• 37:50
  Speaker 1: and Mademoiselle Louise sent for me. He was naughty and obstinate.
• 37:55
  Speaker 1: I tried threats, but he only grew angrier. Then I
• 37:58
  Speaker 1: took the matter in hand, and I left him alone
• 38:02
  Speaker 1: and began with nurses help to get the other children up,
• 38:05
  Speaker 1: telling him that I did not love him. For a
• 38:08
  Speaker 1: long time, he was silent, as if astonished. Then he
• 38:12
  Speaker 1: jumped out of bed, ran to me in his shirt,
• 38:15
  Speaker 1: and sobbed, so that I could not calm him for
• 38:17
  Speaker 1: a long time. It was plain that what troubled him
• 38:21
  Speaker 1: most was that he had grieved me. Afterwards, in the evening,
• 38:25
  Speaker 1: when I gave him his ticket, he began again, crying
• 38:28
  Speaker 1: piteously and kissing me. One can do anything with him
• 38:31
  Speaker 1: by tenderness. What is a ticket, Nicholas inquired. I have
• 38:37
  Speaker 1: begun giving the elder ones marks every evening, showing how
• 38:40
  Speaker 1: they have behaved. Nicholas looked into the radiant eyes that
• 38:44
  Speaker 1: were gazing at him, and continued to turn over the
• 38:47
  Speaker 1: pages and read. In the diary. Were set down everything
• 38:50
  Speaker 1: in the children's lives that seemed noteworthy to their mother,
• 38:54
  Speaker 1: as showing their characters or suggesting general reflections on educational methods.
• 38:59
  Speaker 1: They were, for the most part quite insignificant rifles, but
• 39:03
  Speaker 1: did not seem so to the mother or to their
• 39:05
  Speaker 1: father either. Now that he read this diary about his
• 39:08
  Speaker 1: children for the first time, under the date fifth was entered,
• 39:13
  Speaker 1: Mitya was naught yet table. Papa said he was to
• 39:16
  Speaker 1: have no pudding. He had none, but looked so unhappily
• 39:20
  Speaker 1: and greedily the others while they were eating. I think
• 39:24
  Speaker 1: that punishment by depriving children of sweet only develops their greedness.
• 39:28
  Speaker 1: Must tell Nicholas this. Nicholas put down the book and
• 39:32
  Speaker 1: looked at his wife. The radiant eyes gazed at him questioningly.
• 39:38
  Speaker 1: Would he approve or disapprove of her diary? There could
• 39:42
  Speaker 1: be no doubt not only of his approval, but also
• 39:45
  Speaker 1: of his admiration for his wife. Perhaps it need not
• 39:48
  Speaker 1: be done so pedantically, thought Nicholas, or even done at all,
• 39:53
  Speaker 1: But this untiring, continual, spiritual effort, of which the sole
• 39:57
  Speaker 1: aim was the children's moral welfare, delight him. Had Nicholas
• 40:02
  Speaker 1: been able to analyze his feelings, he would have found
• 40:04
  Speaker 1: that his steady, tender and proud love of his wife
• 40:08
  Speaker 1: rested on his feeling of wonder at her spirituality and
• 40:11
  Speaker 1: at the lofty moral world almost beyond his reach in
• 40:14
  Speaker 1: which she had her being He was proud of her
• 40:17
  Speaker 1: intelligence and goodness, recognized his ownly significance beside her in
• 40:22
  Speaker 1: the spiritual world, and rejoiced all the more that she,
• 40:26
  Speaker 1: with such a soul, not only belonged to him, but
• 40:29
  Speaker 1: was part of himself. I quite quite approve, my dearest,
• 40:34
  Speaker 1: said he with a significant look, and after a sure pause,
• 40:37
  Speaker 1: he added, and I behaved badly to day. You weren't
• 40:41
  Speaker 1: in the study. We began disputing care had I and
• 40:45
  Speaker 1: I lost my temper. But he is impossible, such a child.
• 40:51
  Speaker 1: I don't know what would become of him if Natasha
• 40:53
  Speaker 1: didn't keep him in hand. Have you any idea why
• 40:56
  Speaker 1: he went to Petersburg? They have formed, Yes, I know,
• 41:00
  Speaker 1: said Countess Mary. Natasha told me, well, then you know.
• 41:06
  Speaker 1: Nicholas went on, growing hot at the mere recollection of
• 41:08
  Speaker 1: the discussion. He wanted to convince me that it is
• 41:12
  Speaker 1: every honest man's duty to go against the government, and
• 41:15
  Speaker 1: that the oath of allegiance and duty. I'm sorry you
• 41:18
  Speaker 1: weren't there. They all fell on me there, he saw
• 41:20
  Speaker 1: of Natasha. Natasha is absurd, how she rules over him,
• 41:25
  Speaker 1: and yet that it'd only be a discussion, and she
• 41:27
  Speaker 1: has no words of her own, but then repeats his sayings,
• 41:31
  Speaker 1: added Nicholas, yielding to that irresistible inclination which tempts us
• 41:35
  Speaker 1: to judge those nearest and dearest to us, he forgot
• 41:38
  Speaker 1: that what he was saying about Natasha could have been
• 41:40
  Speaker 1: applied word for word to himself in relation to his wife. Yes,
• 41:45
  Speaker 1: I have noticed that, said Countess Mary. When I told
• 41:49
  Speaker 1: him that duty and the oath were above everything, he
• 41:53
  Speaker 1: started proving. Goodness knows, what a pity you were not there.
• 41:56
  Speaker 1: What would you have said? As I see it, you
• 41:59
  Speaker 1: were quite right, and I told Natasha. So Pierre says
• 42:03
  Speaker 1: everybody is suffering, tortured and being corrupted, and that it
• 42:06
  Speaker 1: is our duty to help our neighbor. Of course he
• 42:09
  Speaker 1: is right there, said Countess Mary, but he forgets that
• 42:13
  Speaker 1: we have other duties nearer to us. Duty is indicated
• 42:16
  Speaker 1: to us by God himself, and that though we might
• 42:19
  Speaker 1: expose ourselves to risk, we must not risk our children. Yes,
• 42:24
  Speaker 1: that's it, That's just what I said to him, put
• 42:26
  Speaker 1: in Nicholas, who fancied he really had said it. But
• 42:29
  Speaker 1: they insisted on their own view love of one's neighbor
• 42:32
  Speaker 1: and Christianity, and all this in the presence of young Nicholas,
• 42:35
  Speaker 1: who had gone into my study and broke all my things. Ah, Nicholas,
• 42:39
  Speaker 1: do you know? I am often troubled about little Nicholas,
• 42:42
  Speaker 1: said Countess Mary. He is such an exceptional boy. I
• 42:46
  Speaker 1: am afraid I neglect him in favor of my own.
• 42:49
  Speaker 1: We all have children and relations, while he has no one.
• 42:53
  Speaker 1: He is constantly alone with his thoughts. Well, I don't
• 42:57
  Speaker 1: think you need reproach yourself on his account. All that
• 43:00
  Speaker 1: the fondest mother could do for her son you have
• 43:03
  Speaker 1: done and are doing for him, And of course I
• 43:05
  Speaker 1: am glad of it. He is a fine lad, a
• 43:08
  Speaker 1: fine lad. This evening he listened to Pierre in a
• 43:11
  Speaker 1: sort of trance and fancy. As we were going in
• 43:14
  Speaker 1: to supper, I looked and he had broken everything on
• 43:18
  Speaker 1: my table to bits, and he told me for himself
• 43:20
  Speaker 1: at once. I never knew him to tell an untruth.
• 43:23
  Speaker 1: A fine lad, A fine lad, repeated Nicholas, who at
• 43:27
  Speaker 1: heart was not fond of Nicholas Bolkonski, and was always
• 43:30
  Speaker 1: anxious to recognize that he was a fine lad. Still
• 43:34
  Speaker 1: I am not the same as his own mother, said
• 43:37
  Speaker 1: Countess Mary. I feel I am not the same, and
• 43:39
  Speaker 1: it troubles me. A wonderful boy, but I am dreadfully
• 43:43
  Speaker 1: afraid for him. It would be good for him to
• 43:46
  Speaker 1: have companions. Well, it won't be for long. Next summer,
• 43:50
  Speaker 1: I'll take him to Petersburg, said Nicholas. Yes, Pierre was
• 43:55
  Speaker 1: always a dreamer and always will be. He continued, returning
• 43:58
  Speaker 1: to the talk in the study, which had evidently disturbed him. Well,
• 44:02
  Speaker 1: what business is it of mine? What goes on there?
• 44:04
  Speaker 1: Whether actually have is bad? And all that? What business
• 44:07
  Speaker 1: was it of mine? When I married him? Was so
• 44:09
  Speaker 1: deep in debt that I was threatened with prison, and
• 44:11
  Speaker 1: had a mother who could not see or understand it.
• 44:13
  Speaker 1: And then and then there are you and the children
• 44:17
  Speaker 1: and our affairs. Is it for my own pleasure that
• 44:20
  Speaker 1: I am at the farmer in the office from morning
• 44:22
  Speaker 1: to night. No? But I know I must work to
• 44:26
  Speaker 1: comfort my mother, to repay you, and not to leave
• 44:28
  Speaker 1: the children such beggars as I was. Countess Mary wanted
• 44:33
  Speaker 1: to tell him that man does not live by bread alone,
• 44:36
  Speaker 1: and that he attached too much importance to these matters.
• 44:39
  Speaker 1: But she knew she must not say this, and that
• 44:41
  Speaker 1: it would be useless to do so. She only took
• 44:43
  Speaker 1: his hand and kissed it. He took this as a
• 44:46
  Speaker 1: sign of approval and a confirmation of his thoughts, and
• 44:48
  Speaker 1: after a few minutes reflection, continued to think aloud, you
• 44:52
  Speaker 1: know Mary. To day Elias Mithrovanitch, this was his overseer,
• 44:56
  Speaker 1: came back from the Tambov estate and told me they
• 44:59
  Speaker 1: are already off in eighty thousand roubles for the forest,
• 45:02
  Speaker 1: and with an eager face, Nicholas began to speak of
• 45:05
  Speaker 1: the possibility of repurchasing Otradnair before long, and added another
• 45:09
  Speaker 1: ten years of life, and I shall leave the children
• 45:11
  Speaker 1: in an excellent position. Countess Mary listened to her husband
• 45:16
  Speaker 1: and understood all that he told her. She knew that
• 45:18
  Speaker 1: when he thought aloud in this way, he would sometimes
• 45:21
  Speaker 1: ask her what he had been saying, and be vexed
• 45:23
  Speaker 1: if he noticed that she had been thinking about something else.
• 45:26
  Speaker 1: But she had to force herself to attend, for what
• 45:29
  Speaker 1: he was saying did not interest her at all. She
• 45:32
  Speaker 1: looked at him and did not think, but felt about
• 45:35
  Speaker 1: something different. She felt a submissive, tender love for this
• 45:39
  Speaker 1: man who would never understand all that she understood, and
• 45:43
  Speaker 1: this seemed to make her love for him still stronger,
• 45:46
  Speaker 1: and added a touch of passionate tenderness. Besides this feeling,
• 45:50
  Speaker 1: which absorbed her altogether and hindered her from following the
• 45:53
  Speaker 1: details of her husband's plans, thoughts that had no connection
• 45:56
  Speaker 1: with what you were saying flitted through her mind. She
• 45:59
  Speaker 1: thought of her next Her husband's account of the boy's
• 46:02
  Speaker 1: agitation while Pierre was speaking struck her forcibly, and various
• 46:06
  Speaker 1: traits of his gentle, sensitive character recurred to her mind,
• 46:09
  Speaker 1: And while thinking of a nephew, she thought also of
• 46:12
  Speaker 1: her own children. She did not compare them with him,
• 46:16
  Speaker 1: but compared her feeling for them with her feeling for him,
• 46:19
  Speaker 1: and felt with regret that there was something lacking in
• 46:22
  Speaker 1: her feeling for young Nicholas. Sometimes it seemed to her
• 46:25
  Speaker 1: that this difference arose from the difference in their ages,
• 46:28
  Speaker 1: But she felt herself to blame toward him, and promised
• 46:31
  Speaker 1: in her heart to do better and to accomplish the
• 46:34
  Speaker 1: impossible in this life, to love her husband, her children,
• 46:38
  Speaker 1: little Nicholas, and all her neighbors as Christ's love mankind.
• 46:42
  Speaker 1: Countess Mary's soul always strove towards the infinite, the eternal,
• 46:45
  Speaker 1: and the absolute, and could therefore never be at peace.
• 46:49
  Speaker 1: A stern expression of the lofty, secret suffering of a
• 46:52
  Speaker 1: soul burdened by the body appeared on her face. Nicholas
• 46:56
  Speaker 1: gazed at her, Oh, God, what will become of us
• 47:00
  Speaker 1: if she dies? As I always fear when her face
• 47:03
  Speaker 1: is like that, thought he, and placing himself before the icon,
• 47:07
  Speaker 1: he began to say his evening prayers. End of chapter fifteen.
• 47:12
  Speaker 4: Natasha and Pierre, left alone, also began to talk as
• 47:16
  Speaker 4: only a husband and wife can talk, that is, with
• 47:20
  Speaker 4: extraordinary clearness and rapidity, understanding and expressing each other's thoughts
• 47:25
  Speaker 4: in ways contrary to all rules of logic, without premises, deductions,
• 47:30
  Speaker 4: or conclusions, and in a quite peculiar way. Natasha was
• 47:34
  Speaker 4: so used to this kind of talk with her husband
• 47:37
  Speaker 4: that for her it was the surest sign of something
• 47:39
  Speaker 4: being wrong between them. If Pierre folowed a line of
• 47:42
  Speaker 4: logical reasoning when he began proving anything or talking argumentatively
• 47:47
  Speaker 4: and calmly, and she, led on by his example, began
• 47:51
  Speaker 4: to do the same, she knew that they were on
• 47:53
  Speaker 4: the verge of a quarrel from the moment they were alone,
• 47:57
  Speaker 4: and Natasha came up to him with wide open, happy
• 47:59
  Speaker 4: eyes and quickly seizing his head, pressed it to her bosom, saying,
• 48:04
  Speaker 4: now you're all mine, mine. You won't escape from that moment.
• 48:10
  Speaker 4: This conversation began contrary to all the laws of logic,
• 48:14
  Speaker 4: and contrary to them because quite different subjects were talked
• 48:17
  Speaker 4: about at one and the same time. This simultaneous discussion
• 48:21
  Speaker 4: of many topics did not prevent a clear understanding, but
• 48:25
  Speaker 4: on the contrary, was the surest sign that they fully
• 48:27
  Speaker 4: understood one another. Just as in a dream, when all
• 48:31
  Speaker 4: is uncertain, unreasoning, and contradictory except the feeling that guides
• 48:36
  Speaker 4: the dream, so in this intercourse, contrary to all laws
• 48:40
  Speaker 4: of reason, the words themselves were not consecutive and clear,
• 48:44
  Speaker 4: but only the feeling that prompted them. Natasha spoke to
• 48:48
  Speaker 4: Pierre about her brother's life and doings, of how she
• 48:51
  Speaker 4: had suffered and lacked life during his own absence, and
• 48:54
  Speaker 4: of how she was fonder than ever of Mary, and
• 48:57
  Speaker 4: how Mary was in every way better than herself. In
• 49:00
  Speaker 4: saying this, Natasha was sincere in acknowledging Mary's superiority. But
• 49:05
  Speaker 4: at the same time, by saying it, she made a
• 49:07
  Speaker 4: demand on Pierre that he should all the same prefer
• 49:11
  Speaker 4: her to Mary and to all other women, and that now,
• 49:14
  Speaker 4: especially after having seen many women in Petersburg, he should
• 49:18
  Speaker 4: tell her so afresh. Pierre, answering Natasha's words, told her
• 49:23
  Speaker 4: how intolerable it had been for him to meet ladies
• 49:26
  Speaker 4: at dinners and balls in Petersburg. I've quite lost the
• 49:29
  Speaker 4: knack of talking to ladies, he said, it was simply dull. Besides,
• 49:33
  Speaker 4: I was very busy. Natasha looked intently at him and
• 49:37
  Speaker 4: went on, Mary is so splendid, said she. How she
• 49:42
  Speaker 4: understands children. It is as if she saw straight into
• 49:45
  Speaker 4: their souls. Yesterday, for instance, Mitya was naughty. How like
• 49:50
  Speaker 4: his father he is, Pierre interjected. Natasha knew why he
• 49:54
  Speaker 4: mentioned Mitya's likeness to Nicholas. The recollection of his dispute
• 49:58
  Speaker 4: with his brother in law was unpleasant, and he wanted
• 50:00
  Speaker 4: to know what Natasha thought of it. Nicholas has the
• 50:05
  Speaker 4: weakness of never agreeing with anything not generally accepted. But
• 50:09
  Speaker 4: I understand that you value what opens up a fresh line,
• 50:12
  Speaker 4: said she, repeating words. Pierre at once ated, No, the
• 50:17
  Speaker 4: chief point is that to Nicholas, ideas and discussions are
• 50:21
  Speaker 4: an amusement, almost a pastime, said Pierre. For instance, he
• 50:26
  Speaker 4: is collecting a library, and has made it a rule
• 50:29
  Speaker 4: not to buy a new book till he has read
• 50:31
  Speaker 4: what it already bought, says Mondy, and Rousseau and Montesquieu.
• 50:35
  Speaker 4: He added, with a smile, you know how much I
• 50:39
  Speaker 4: He began to soften down what he had said, but
• 50:41
  Speaker 4: Natasha interrupted him to show that this was unnecessary. So
• 50:46
  Speaker 4: you say, ideas are an amusement to him, yes, and
• 50:50
  Speaker 4: for me nothing else is serious. All the time in Petersburg,
• 50:53
  Speaker 4: I saw every one as in a dream. When I
• 50:56
  Speaker 4: am taken up by a thought, all else is mere amusement. Ah,
• 51:01
  Speaker 4: I'm so sorry I wasn't there when you met the children,
• 51:03
  Speaker 4: said Natasha, which was most delighted Lisa. I'm sure, yes,
• 51:09
  Speaker 4: Pierre replied, and went on what was in his mind.
• 51:13
  Speaker 4: Nicholas says, we ought not to think, but I can't
• 51:16
  Speaker 4: help it. Besides, when I was in Petersburg, I felt,
• 51:20
  Speaker 4: I can say this to you, that the whole affair
• 51:22
  Speaker 4: would go to pieces without me. Every one was pulling
• 51:25
  Speaker 4: his own way, but I succeeded in uniting them all.
• 51:29
  Speaker 4: And then my idea is so clear and simple. You see,
• 51:33
  Speaker 4: I don't say that we ought to oppose this and
• 51:36
  Speaker 4: that we may be mistaken. What I say is join
• 51:40
  Speaker 4: hands you who love the right, and let there be
• 51:43
  Speaker 4: but one banner, that of active virtue. Pensergey is a
• 51:47
  Speaker 4: fine fellow and clever. Natasha would have had no doubt
• 51:52
  Speaker 4: as to the greatness of Pierre's idea. But one thing
• 51:54
  Speaker 4: disconcerted her. Can a man so important and necessary to
• 52:00
  Speaker 4: society be also my husband? How did this happen? She
• 52:04
  Speaker 4: wished to express this doubt to him. Now, who could
• 52:08
  Speaker 4: decide whether he is really cleverer than all the others?
• 52:12
  Speaker 4: She asked herself, and passed in review all those whom
• 52:15
  Speaker 4: Pierre most respected. Judging by what he had said, there
• 52:19
  Speaker 4: was no one he had respected so highly as Platon Karataev.
• 52:25
  Speaker 4: Do you know what I am thinking about? She asked
• 52:27
  Speaker 4: about Platon Karataev. Would he have approved of you?
• 52:31
  Speaker 3: Now?
• 52:31
  Speaker 4: Do you think? Pierre was not at all surprised at
• 52:35
  Speaker 4: this question. He understood his wife's line of thought. Platon Karataev,
• 52:40
  Speaker 4: he repeated and pondered, evidently sincerely trying to imagine Karatiev's
• 52:45
  Speaker 4: opinion on the subject. He would not have under stood, yet,
• 52:50
  Speaker 4: perhaps he would. I love you awfully, Natasha suddenly said,
• 52:56
  Speaker 4: awfully awfully. No, he would not have approved, said Pierre
• 53:02
  Speaker 4: after reflection. What he would have approved of is our
• 53:06
  Speaker 4: family life. He was always so anxious to find seemliness,
• 53:10
  Speaker 4: happiness and peace in everything, and I should have been
• 53:13
  Speaker 4: proud to let him see us there. Now you talk
• 53:17
  Speaker 4: of my absence, but you wouldn't believe what a special
• 53:20
  Speaker 4: feeling I have for you after separation. Yes, I should think,
• 53:25
  Speaker 4: Natasha began. No, it's not that I never leave off
• 53:29
  Speaker 4: loving you, and one couldn't love more, but this is
• 53:33
  Speaker 4: something special. Yes, of course he did not finish, because
• 53:40
  Speaker 4: their eyes meeting said the rest. What nonsense it is?
• 53:45
  Speaker 4: Natasha suddenly exclaimed about honeymoons, and that the greatest happiness
• 53:49
  Speaker 4: is at first. On the contrary, now is the best
• 53:52
  Speaker 4: of all if only he did not go away. Do
• 53:56
  Speaker 4: you remember how he quarreled and it was always my fault,
• 53:59
  Speaker 4: always mine, and we crawled about I don't even remember,
• 54:05
  Speaker 4: always about the same thing, said Pierre with a smile. Jell,
• 54:09
  Speaker 4: don't see it. I can't bear it, Natasha cried, and
• 54:13
  Speaker 4: her eyes glittered coldly and vindictively. Did you see her?
• 54:18
  Speaker 4: She added, after a pause, No, And if I had,
• 54:22
  Speaker 4: I shouldn't have recognized her. They were silent for a while.
• 54:28
  Speaker 4: Oh do you know while you were talking in the study,
• 54:31
  Speaker 4: I was looking at you, Natasha began, evidently anxious to
• 54:35
  Speaker 4: disperse the clouds that had come over them. You're as
• 54:38
  Speaker 4: like him as two peas like the boy, she meant,
• 54:41
  Speaker 4: her little son. Oh, it's time to go to him.
• 54:45
  Speaker 4: The milks come, but I'm sorry to leave you. They
• 54:49
  Speaker 4: were silent for a few seconds, then suddenly turning to
• 54:52
  Speaker 4: one another. At the same time, they both began to speak.
• 54:55
  Speaker 4: Pierre began with self satisfaction and enthusiasm, Natash with a quiet,
• 55:00
  Speaker 4: happy smile. Having interrupted one another, they both stopped to
• 55:04
  Speaker 4: let the other continue. No, what did you say?
• 55:08
  Speaker 5: Go on?
• 55:09
  Speaker 6: Go on?
• 55:10
  Speaker 4: No, you go on, I was talking nonsense, said Natasha.
• 55:15
  Speaker 4: Pierre finished what he had begun. It was a sequel
• 55:17
  Speaker 4: to his complacent reflections on a success in Petersburg. At
• 55:21
  Speaker 4: that moment, it seemed to him that he was chosen
• 55:24
  Speaker 4: to give a new direction to the whole of Russian
• 55:26
  Speaker 4: society and to the whole world. I only wish to
• 55:30
  Speaker 4: say that ideas that have great results are always simple ones.
• 55:35
  Speaker 4: My whole idea is that if vicious people are united
• 55:38
  Speaker 4: and constitute a power, then, honest folk must do the same.
• 55:42
  Speaker 4: Now that's simple enough. Yes, And what were you going
• 55:48
  Speaker 4: to say? I only nonsense, but all the same, Oh nothing,
• 55:55
  Speaker 4: only a trifle, said Natasha, smilingly, still more brightly. I
• 56:00
  Speaker 4: only wanted to tell you about Petya. To day nurse
• 56:03
  Speaker 4: was coming to take him from me. And he laughed,
• 56:06
  Speaker 4: shut his eyes and clung to me. I'm sure he
• 56:08
  Speaker 4: thought he was hiding. Awfully sweet there. Now he's crying, well,
• 56:14
  Speaker 4: good bye, and she left the room. Meanwhile, downstairs, in
• 56:19
  Speaker 4: young Nicholas Bolkonski's bedroom, a little lamp was burning as usual.
• 56:24
  Speaker 4: The boy was afraid of the dark, and they could
• 56:26
  Speaker 4: not cure him of it. The sull slept propped up
• 56:30
  Speaker 4: on four pillows, and his roman nose admitted sounds of
• 56:33
  Speaker 4: rhythmic snoring. Little Nicholas, who had just waked up in
• 56:37
  Speaker 4: a cold perspiration, sat up in bed and gazed before
• 56:41
  Speaker 4: him with wide open eyes. He had awaked from a
• 56:44
  Speaker 4: terrible dream. He dreamed that he and Uncle Pierre wearing
• 56:48
  Speaker 4: helmets such as were depicted in his plute Hark, while
• 56:51
  Speaker 4: leading a huge army. The army was made up of white,
• 56:55
  Speaker 4: slanting lines that filled the air, like the cobwebs that
• 56:58
  Speaker 4: flowed about in autumn, and which Dessalle had called le
• 57:01
  Speaker 4: fisde la vierge. In front was glory, which was similar
• 57:06
  Speaker 4: to those threats, but rather thicker. He and Pierre were
• 57:09
  Speaker 4: borne along, lightly and joyously, nearer and nearer to their goal.
• 57:14
  Speaker 4: Suddenly the threats that moved them began to slacken and
• 57:17
  Speaker 4: become entangled, and it grew difficult to move, and Uncle
• 57:21
  Speaker 4: Nicholas stood before them in a stern and threatening attitude.
• 57:25
  Speaker 5: Have you done this?
• 57:26
  Speaker 4: He said, pointing to some broken sealing wax and pens.
• 57:30
  Speaker 4: I loved you, but I have orders from our akchiev
• 57:33
  Speaker 4: and will kill the first of you who moves forward.
• 57:37
  Speaker 4: Little Nicholas turned to look at Pierre, but Pierre was
• 57:39
  Speaker 4: no longer there. In his place was his father, Prince Andrew.
• 57:44
  Speaker 4: And his father had neither shaped nor form, but he existed,
• 57:48
  Speaker 4: and when little Nicholas perceived him, he grew faint with love.
• 57:51
  Speaker 4: He felt himself powerless, limp and formless. His father caressed
• 57:56
  Speaker 4: and pitied him, but Uncle Nicholas came nearer and nearer
• 58:00
  Speaker 4: to them. Terror seized young Nicholas, and he awoke my father,
• 58:05
  Speaker 4: he thought. Though there were two good portraits of Prince
• 58:08
  Speaker 4: Andrey in the house, Nicholas never imagined him in human form.
• 58:12
  Speaker 4: My father has been with me and caressed me. He
• 58:15
  Speaker 4: approved of me and of our Gopierre. Whatever he may
• 58:18
  Speaker 4: tell me, I will do it. Missus Guevela burned his hand.
• 58:23
  Speaker 2: Why should not the.
• 58:24
  Speaker 4: Same sort of thing happen to me? I know they
• 58:27
  Speaker 4: want me to learn, and I will learn. But some
• 58:30
  Speaker 4: day I shall have finished learning, and then I will
• 58:32
  Speaker 4: do something. I only pray God that something may happen
• 58:36
  Speaker 4: to me such as happened to Plutar's men, and I
• 58:38
  Speaker 4: will act as they did. I will do better. Every
• 58:41
  Speaker 4: one shall know me, love me, and be delighted with me.
• 58:45
  Speaker 4: And suddenly his bosom heaved with sobs, and he began
• 58:49
  Speaker 4: to cry, are you ill? He heard De Soult's voice
• 58:53
  Speaker 4: asking no, answered Nicholas, and lay back on his pillow.
• 59:00
  Speaker 4: He is good and kind, and I am fond of him,
• 59:03
  Speaker 4: he thought of the cell. But Uncle Pierre, oh what
• 59:07
  Speaker 4: a wonderful man he is. And my father, oh, father father, Yes,
• 59:14
  Speaker 4: I will do something with which even he would be satisfied.
• 59:20
  Speaker 4: End of Chapter sixteen.
• 59:22
  Speaker 7: War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, second Epilogue, Chapter one.
• 59:29
  Speaker 7: History is the life of nations and of humanity. To
• 59:32
  Speaker 7: seize and put into words, to describe directly the life
• 59:36
  Speaker 7: of humanity, or even of a single nation, appears impossible.
• 59:41
  Speaker 7: The ancient historians all employed one and the same method
• 59:44
  Speaker 7: to describe and seize the apparently elusive the life of
• 59:47
  Speaker 7: a people. They describe the activity of individuals who ruled
• 59:51
  Speaker 7: the people, and regarded the activity of those men as
• 59:54
  Speaker 7: representing the activity of the whole nation. The question how
• 59:59
  Speaker 7: did individuals make nations act as they wished? And by
• 1:00:02
  Speaker 7: what was the will of these individuals themselves guided? The
• 1:00:05
  Speaker 7: ancients met by recognizing a divinity which subjected the nations
• 1:00:09
  Speaker 7: to the will of a chosen man, and guided the
• 1:00:11
  Speaker 7: will of that chosen man so as to accomplish ends
• 1:00:14
  Speaker 7: that were predestined. For the ancients, these questions were solved
• 1:00:18
  Speaker 7: by a belief in the direct participation of the deity
• 1:00:20
  Speaker 7: in human affairs. Modern history in theory, rejects both these principles.
• 1:00:27
  Speaker 7: It would seem that having rejected the belief of the
• 1:00:29
  Speaker 7: ancients in man's subjection to the deity and in a
• 1:00:32
  Speaker 7: predetermined aim toward which nations are led. Modern history should
• 1:00:36
  Speaker 7: study not the manifestations of power, but the causes that
• 1:00:39
  Speaker 7: produce it. But modern history has not done this. Having
• 1:00:43
  Speaker 7: in theory rejected the view held by the ancients, it
• 1:00:46
  Speaker 7: still follows them in practice. Instead of men endowed with
• 1:00:50
  Speaker 7: divine authority and directly guided by the will of God,
• 1:00:54
  Speaker 7: modern history has given us either heroes endowed with extraordinary
• 1:00:57
  Speaker 7: superhuman capacities or simply men of various kinds, from monarchs
• 1:01:02
  Speaker 7: to journalists who lead the masses. Instead of the former
• 1:01:06
  Speaker 7: divinely appointed aims of the Jewish, Greek, or Roman nations,
• 1:01:10
  Speaker 7: which ancient historians regarded as representing the progress of humanity,
• 1:01:14
  Speaker 7: modern history has postulated its own aims the welfare of
• 1:01:18
  Speaker 7: the French, German or English people, or, in its highest abstraction,
• 1:01:22
  Speaker 7: the welfare and civilization of humanity in general, by which
• 1:01:26
  Speaker 7: is usually meant that of the peoples occupying a small
• 1:01:29
  Speaker 7: northwesterly portion of a large continent. Modern history has rejected
• 1:01:33
  Speaker 7: the beliefs of the ancients without replacing them by a
• 1:01:36
  Speaker 7: new conception, and the logic of the situation has obliged
• 1:01:39
  Speaker 7: the historians, after they had apparently rejected the divine authority
• 1:01:43
  Speaker 7: of the kings and the fate of the ancients. To
• 1:01:46
  Speaker 7: reach the same conclusion by another road, that is, to
• 1:01:49
  Speaker 7: recognize one nations guided by individual men, and two the
• 1:01:54
  Speaker 7: existence of a known name to which these nations in
• 1:01:56
  Speaker 7: humanity at large. Attending at the basis of the works
• 1:01:59
  Speaker 7: of all the modern historians, from Gibbon to Buckle, despite
• 1:02:03
  Speaker 7: their seeming disagreements and the apparent novelty of their outlooks,
• 1:02:06
  Speaker 7: lie those two old, unavoidable assumptions. In the first place,
• 1:02:12
  Speaker 7: the historian describes the activity of individuals who, in his opinion,
• 1:02:16
  Speaker 7: have directed humanity. One historian considers only monarchs, generals, and
• 1:02:21
  Speaker 7: ministers as being such men, while another includes also orators,
• 1:02:26
  Speaker 7: learned men, reformers, philosophers, and poets. Secondly, it is assumed
• 1:02:31
  Speaker 7: that the goal toward which humanity is being led is
• 1:02:34
  Speaker 7: known to the historians. To one of them, this goal
• 1:02:37
  Speaker 7: is the greatness of the Roman, Spanish or French realm.
• 1:02:40
  Speaker 7: To another, it is liberty, equality, and a certain kind
• 1:02:43
  Speaker 7: of civilization of a small corner of the world called Europe.
• 1:02:47
  Speaker 7: In seventeen eighty nine, a ferment arises in Paris. It grows, spreads,
• 1:02:52
  Speaker 7: and is expressed by a movement of peoples from west
• 1:02:55
  Speaker 7: to east. Several times, it moves eastward and collides with
• 1:02:59
  Speaker 7: a counter movement from the east westward. In eighteen twelve
• 1:03:03
  Speaker 7: it reaches its extreme limits Moscow, and then, with remarkable symmetry,
• 1:03:08
  Speaker 7: a counter movement occurs from east to west, attracting to
• 1:03:11
  Speaker 7: it as the first movement had done the nations of
• 1:03:13
  Speaker 7: Middle Europe. The counter movement reaches the starting point of
• 1:03:17
  Speaker 7: the first movement in the west, Paris and subsides. During
• 1:03:21
  Speaker 7: that twenty year period, an immense number of fields were
• 1:03:24
  Speaker 7: left untilled, houses were burned, trade changed its direction, millions
• 1:03:29
  Speaker 7: of men migrated, were impoverished, or were enriched, and millions
• 1:03:33
  Speaker 7: of Christian men, professing the law of love of their fellows,
• 1:03:36
  Speaker 7: slew one another. What does all this mean? Why did
• 1:03:40
  Speaker 7: it happen? What made those people burn houses and slay
• 1:03:43
  Speaker 7: their fellow men? What were the causes of these events?
• 1:03:47
  Speaker 7: What force made men act?
• 1:03:48
  Speaker 8: So?
• 1:03:49
  Speaker 7: These are the instinctive, plain and most legitimate questions humanity
• 1:03:53
  Speaker 7: asks itself when it encounters the monuments and tradition of
• 1:03:56
  Speaker 7: that period. For a reply to these questions, the common
• 1:04:00
  Speaker 7: sense of mankind turns to the science of history, whose
• 1:04:03
  Speaker 7: aim is to enable nations and humanity to know themselves.
• 1:04:06
  Speaker 7: If history had retained the conception of the ancients, it
• 1:04:09
  Speaker 7: would have said that God, to reward or punish his people,
• 1:04:13
  Speaker 7: gave Napoleon power and directed his will to the fulfillment
• 1:04:16
  Speaker 7: of the divine ends, and that reply would have been
• 1:04:19
  Speaker 7: clear and complete. One might believe or disbelieve in the
• 1:04:22
  Speaker 7: divine significance of Napoleon, but for anyone believing in it,
• 1:04:26
  Speaker 7: there would have been nothing unintelligible in the history of
• 1:04:29
  Speaker 7: that period, nor would there have been any contradictions. But
• 1:04:33
  Speaker 7: modern history cannot give that reply. Science does not admit
• 1:04:36
  Speaker 7: the conception of the ancients as to the direct participation
• 1:04:39
  Speaker 7: of the deity in human affairs, and therefore history ought
• 1:04:42
  Speaker 7: to give other answers. Modern history, replying to these questions, says,
• 1:04:48
  Speaker 7: you want to know what this movement means, what caused it,
• 1:04:51
  Speaker 7: and what force produced these events? Then listen. Louis fourteenth
• 1:04:56
  Speaker 7: was a very proud and self confident man. He has
• 1:04:58
  Speaker 7: such and such mistresses and such and such ministers, and
• 1:05:02
  Speaker 7: he ruled France badly. His descendants were weak men, and
• 1:05:05
  Speaker 7: they too ruled France badly. And they had such and
• 1:05:08
  Speaker 7: such favorites and such and such mistresses. Moreover, certain men
• 1:05:13
  Speaker 7: wrote some books at that time. At the end of
• 1:05:15
  Speaker 7: the eighteenth century, there were a couple of dozen men
• 1:05:18
  Speaker 7: in Paris who began to talk about all men being
• 1:05:21
  Speaker 7: free and equal. This caused people all over France to
• 1:05:25
  Speaker 7: begin to slash at and drown one another. They killed
• 1:05:28
  Speaker 7: the king and many other people. At that time there
• 1:05:31
  Speaker 7: was a man in France of genius Napoleon. He conquered
• 1:05:34
  Speaker 7: everybody everywhere, that is, he killed many people because he
• 1:05:38
  Speaker 7: was a great genius. And for some reason he went
• 1:05:41
  Speaker 7: to kill Africans and killed them so well, and was
• 1:05:43
  Speaker 7: so cunning and wise that when he returned to France,
• 1:05:46
  Speaker 7: he ordered everybody to obey him, and they all obeyed him.
• 1:05:50
  Speaker 7: Having become an emperor, he again went out to kill
• 1:05:53
  Speaker 7: people in Italy, Austria, and Prussia, and there too he
• 1:05:57
  Speaker 7: killed a great many. In Russia, there was an emperor Alexander,
• 1:06:01
  Speaker 7: who decided to restore order in Europe and therefore fought
• 1:06:04
  Speaker 7: against Napoleon. In eighteen o seven, he suddenly made friends
• 1:06:08
  Speaker 7: with him, but in eighteen eleven they again quarreled and
• 1:06:11
  Speaker 7: again began killing many people. Napoleon led six hundred thousand
• 1:06:15
  Speaker 7: men into Russia and captured Moscow. Then he suddenly ran
• 1:06:18
  Speaker 7: away from Moscow, and the Emperor Alexander, helped by the
• 1:06:22
  Speaker 7: advice of Stein and others, united Europe to arm against
• 1:06:26
  Speaker 7: the disturber of its peace. All Napoleon's allies suddenly became
• 1:06:29
  Speaker 7: his enemies, and their forces advanced against the fresh forces
• 1:06:32
  Speaker 7: he raised. The Allies defeated Napoleon entered Paris, forced Napoleon
• 1:06:38
  Speaker 7: to abdicate, and sent him to the island of Alba,
• 1:06:41
  Speaker 7: not depriving him of the title of Emperor and showing
• 1:06:44
  Speaker 7: him every respect, though five years before and one year
• 1:06:47
  Speaker 7: later they all regarded him as an outlaw and a
• 1:06:50
  Speaker 7: Brigand then Louis eighteenth, who till then had been the
• 1:06:54
  Speaker 7: laughing stock of both the French and the Allies, began
• 1:06:56
  Speaker 7: to reign, and Napoleon, shedding tears for his old guards,
• 1:07:01
  Speaker 7: renounced the throne and went into exile. Then the skillful
• 1:07:05
  Speaker 7: statesman and diplomatists, especially Talleyroh, who managed to sit down
• 1:07:09
  Speaker 7: in a particular chair before anyone else and thereby extended
• 1:07:12
  Speaker 7: the frontiers of France, talked in Vienna, and by these
• 1:07:16
  Speaker 7: conversations made the nations happy or unhappy. Suddenly the diplomatists
• 1:07:20
  Speaker 7: and monarchs nearly quarreled and were on the point of
• 1:07:23
  Speaker 7: again ordering their armies to kill one another. But just
• 1:07:26
  Speaker 7: then Napoleon arrived in France with the battalion, and the French,
• 1:07:30
  Speaker 7: who had been hating him, immediately all submitted to him.
• 1:07:33
  Speaker 7: But the Allied monarchs were angry at this and went
• 1:07:36
  Speaker 7: to fight the French once more, and they defeated the
• 1:07:38
  Speaker 7: genius Napoleon, and suddenly recognizing him as a brigand sent
• 1:07:42
  Speaker 7: him to the island of Saint Helena, and the exile,
• 1:07:46
  Speaker 7: separated from the beloved France. So dear to his heart,
• 1:07:49
  Speaker 7: died a lingering death on that rock, and bequeathed his
• 1:07:52
  Speaker 7: great deeds to posterity. But in Europe a reaction occurred,
• 1:07:56
  Speaker 7: and the sovereigns once again all began to oppress their subjects.
• 1:08:00
  Speaker 7: It would be a mistake to think that this is
• 1:08:01
  Speaker 7: ironic the caricature of the historical accounts. On the contrary,
• 1:08:06
  Speaker 7: it is a very mild expression of the contradictory replies,
• 1:08:09
  Speaker 7: not meeting the questions which all the historians give. From
• 1:08:13
  Speaker 7: the compilers of memoirs and the histories of separate states
• 1:08:16
  Speaker 7: to the writers of general histories and the new histories
• 1:08:19
  Speaker 7: of the culture of that period. The strangeness and absurdity
• 1:08:22
  Speaker 7: of these replies arise from the fact that modern history,
• 1:08:26
  Speaker 7: like a deaf man, answers questions no one has asked.
• 1:08:30
  Speaker 7: If the purpose of history be to give a description
• 1:08:32
  Speaker 7: of the movement of humanity and of the peoples, the
• 1:08:35
  Speaker 7: first question, in the absence of a reply, to which
• 1:08:38
  Speaker 7: all the rest will be incomprehensible, is what is the
• 1:08:41
  Speaker 7: power that moves peoples? To this Modern history laboriously replies
• 1:08:46
  Speaker 7: either that Napoleon was a great genius, or that Lewis
• 1:08:49
  Speaker 7: fourteenth was very proud, or that certain writers wrote certain books.
• 1:08:54
  Speaker 7: All that may be so, and mankind is ready to
• 1:08:56
  Speaker 7: agree with it, but it is not what was asked.
• 1:09:00
  Speaker 7: That would be interesting if we recognize the divine power
• 1:09:02
  Speaker 7: based on itself and always consistently directing its nations through Napoleons, Lewis,
• 1:09:07
  Speaker 7: and the writers. But we do not acknowledge such a power,
• 1:09:10
  Speaker 7: and therefore before speaking about Napoleons, Louise and authors, we
• 1:09:15
  Speaker 7: ought to be shown the connection existing between these men
• 1:09:17
  Speaker 7: and the movement of the nations. If instead of a
• 1:09:21
  Speaker 7: divine power, some other force has appeared. It should be
• 1:09:24
  Speaker 7: explained in what this new force consists, For the whole
• 1:09:27
  Speaker 7: interest of history lies precisely in that force. History seems
• 1:09:31
  Speaker 7: to assume that this force is self evident and known
• 1:09:34
  Speaker 7: to everyone, But in spite of every desire to regard
• 1:09:37
  Speaker 7: it as known, anyone reading many historical works cannot help
• 1:09:41
  Speaker 7: doubting whether this new force, so variously understood by the
• 1:09:44
  Speaker 7: historians themselves, is really quite well known to everybody.
• 1:09:50
  Speaker 6: End of Chapter one, What force moves the nations? Biographical
• 1:09:55
  Speaker 6: historians and historians of separate nations understand this force as
• 1:09:59
  Speaker 6: a power inherent in heroes and rulers. In their narration,
• 1:10:02
  Speaker 6: events occur solely by the will of a Napoleon and Alexander,
• 1:10:07
  Speaker 6: or in general, of the persons they describe. The answers
• 1:10:10
  Speaker 6: given by this kind of historian to the question of
• 1:10:12
  Speaker 6: what force causes events to happen are satisfactory only as
• 1:10:16
  Speaker 6: long as there is but one historian to each event.
• 1:10:19
  Speaker 6: As soon as historians of different nationalities and tendencies begin
• 1:10:23
  Speaker 6: to describe the same event, the replies they give immediately
• 1:10:26
  Speaker 6: lose all meaning, for this force is understood by them
• 1:10:29
  Speaker 6: all not only differently, but often in quite contradictory ways.
• 1:10:34
  Speaker 6: One historian says that an event was produced by Napoleon's power,
• 1:10:39
  Speaker 6: another that it was produced by Alexander's, a third that
• 1:10:42
  Speaker 6: it was due to the power of some other person.
• 1:10:45
  Speaker 6: Besides this, historians of that kind contradict each other even
• 1:10:49
  Speaker 6: in their statement as to the force on which the
• 1:10:51
  Speaker 6: authority of some particular person was based. Theirs, a bonapartist,
• 1:10:56
  Speaker 6: says that Napoleon's power was based on his virtue and genius. Lanfrey,
• 1:11:00
  Speaker 6: a Republican, says it was based on his trickery and
• 1:11:03
  Speaker 6: deception of the people. So the historians of this class,
• 1:11:07
  Speaker 6: by mutually destroying one another's positions, destroy the understanding of
• 1:11:11
  Speaker 6: the force which produces events, and furnish no reply to
• 1:11:14
  Speaker 6: history's essential question. Writers of universal history, who deal with
• 1:11:19
  Speaker 6: all the nations seem to recognize how erroneous is the
• 1:11:22
  Speaker 6: specialist historian's view of the force which produces events. They
• 1:11:27
  Speaker 6: do not recognize it as a power inherent in heroes
• 1:11:29
  Speaker 6: and rulers, but as the resultant of a multiplicity of
• 1:11:33
  Speaker 6: various directed forces. In describing a war of the subjugation
• 1:11:37
  Speaker 6: of a people, a general historian looks for the cause
• 1:11:40
  Speaker 6: of the event, not in the power of one man,
• 1:11:42
  Speaker 6: but in the interaction of many persons connected with the event.
• 1:11:46
  Speaker 6: According to this view, the power of historical personages represented
• 1:11:50
  Speaker 6: as the product of many forces can no longer it
• 1:11:53
  Speaker 6: would seem, be regarded as a force that itself produces events.
• 1:11:58
  Speaker 6: Yet in most cases, uni versal historians still employ the
• 1:12:01
  Speaker 6: conception of power as a force that itself produces events
• 1:12:05
  Speaker 6: and treat it as their cause. In their exposition, an
• 1:12:09
  Speaker 6: historic character is first the product of his time, and
• 1:12:12
  Speaker 6: his power only the resultant of various forces, and then
• 1:12:15
  Speaker 6: his power is itself a force producing events. Gervinus Schlosser
• 1:12:20
  Speaker 6: and others, for instance, at one time prove Napoleon to
• 1:12:23
  Speaker 6: be a product of the Revolution, of the ideas of
• 1:12:26
  Speaker 6: seventeen eighty nine and so forth, and at another plainly
• 1:12:30
  Speaker 6: say that the campaign of eighteen twelve and other things
• 1:12:33
  Speaker 6: they do not like, were simply the product of Napoleon's
• 1:12:36
  Speaker 6: misdirected will, and that the very ideas of seventeen eighty
• 1:12:39
  Speaker 6: nine were arrested in their development by Napoleon's caprice. The
• 1:12:43
  Speaker 6: ideas of the revolution and the general temper of the
• 1:12:46
  Speaker 6: age produce Napoleon's power, but Napoleon's power suppressed the ideas
• 1:12:51
  Speaker 6: of the revolution and the general temper of the age.
• 1:12:54
  Speaker 6: This curious contradiction is not accidental. Not only does it
• 1:12:58
  Speaker 6: occur at every step, but the universeveral historians accounts are
• 1:13:01
  Speaker 6: all made up of a chain of such contradictions. This
• 1:13:04
  Speaker 6: contradiction occurs because after entering the field of analysis, the
• 1:13:08
  Speaker 6: universal historians stop halfway to find competent forces equal to
• 1:13:13
  Speaker 6: the composite or resultant force. The sum of the components
• 1:13:16
  Speaker 6: must equal the resultant. This condition is never observed by
• 1:13:20
  Speaker 6: the universal historians, and so to explain the resultant forces,
• 1:13:23
  Speaker 6: they are obliged to admit, in addition to the insufficient components,
• 1:13:27
  Speaker 6: another unexplained force affecting the resultant action. Specialist historians describing
• 1:13:33
  Speaker 6: the campaign of eighteen thirteen or the restoration of the
• 1:13:36
  Speaker 6: Bourbons plainly assert that these events were produced by the
• 1:13:39
  Speaker 6: will of Alexander. But the universal historian Gervinus, refuting this
• 1:13:43
  Speaker 6: opinion of the specialist historian, tries to prove that the
• 1:13:46
  Speaker 6: campaign of eighteen thirteen and the restoration of the Bourbons
• 1:13:50
  Speaker 6: were due to other things besides Alexander's will. Such as
• 1:13:54
  Speaker 6: the activity of Stein, Metternich, Madame de Stau, Talleyrand, Fisch,
• 1:14:00
  Speaker 6: Chateaubriand and others. The historian evidently decomposes Alexander's power into
• 1:14:06
  Speaker 6: the components Talleyrand, Chateaubriand and the rest. But the sum
• 1:14:11
  Speaker 6: of the components, that is, the interactions of Chateaubriand, Talleyrand,
• 1:14:16
  Speaker 6: Madame de Stael and the others, evidently does not equal
• 1:14:19
  Speaker 6: the resultant. Namely, the phenomenon of millions of Frenchmen submitting
• 1:14:23
  Speaker 6: to the Bourbons that chateaubriand, Madame de Stael and others
• 1:14:28
  Speaker 6: spoke certain words to one another only affected their mutual relations,
• 1:14:32
  Speaker 6: but does not account for the submission of millions. And therefore,
• 1:14:35
  Speaker 6: to explain how from these relations of theirs the submission
• 1:14:39
  Speaker 6: of millions of people resulted, that is, how the component
• 1:14:43
  Speaker 6: forces equal to one A gave a resultant equal to
• 1:14:46
  Speaker 6: A thousand times a, the historians again obliged to fall
• 1:14:50
  Speaker 6: back on power, the force he had denied, and to
• 1:14:53
  Speaker 6: recognize it as the resultant of the forces, that is,
• 1:14:56
  Speaker 6: he has to admit an unexplained force acting on them
• 1:15:00
  Speaker 6: the resultant, and that is just what the universal historians do,
• 1:15:03
  Speaker 6: and consequently they not only contradict the special historians, but
• 1:15:07
  Speaker 6: contradict themselves. Peasants having no clear idea of the cause
• 1:15:12
  Speaker 6: of rain say, according to whether they want rain or
• 1:15:15
  Speaker 6: fine weather, the wind has blown the clouds away, or
• 1:15:20
  Speaker 6: the wind has brought up the clouds. And in the
• 1:15:22
  Speaker 6: same way, the universal historians, sometimes when it pleases them
• 1:15:26
  Speaker 6: and fits in with their theory, say that power is
• 1:15:29
  Speaker 6: the result of events, and sometimes, when they want to
• 1:15:32
  Speaker 6: prove something else, say that power produces events. A third
• 1:15:36
  Speaker 6: class of historians, the so called historians of culture, following
• 1:15:40
  Speaker 6: the path laid down by the universal historians, who sometimes
• 1:15:43
  Speaker 6: accept writers and ladies as forces producing events, again take
• 1:15:48
  Speaker 6: that force to be something quite different. They see it
• 1:15:50
  Speaker 6: in what is called culture in mental activity. The historians
• 1:15:54
  Speaker 6: of culture are quite consistent in regard to their progenitors,
• 1:15:58
  Speaker 6: the writers of universal histories. For if historical events may
• 1:16:01
  Speaker 6: be explained by the fact that certain persons treated one
• 1:16:04
  Speaker 6: another in such and such ways, why not explain them
• 1:16:07
  Speaker 6: by the fact that such and such people wrote such
• 1:16:10
  Speaker 6: and such books. Of the immense number of indications accompanying
• 1:16:14
  Speaker 6: every vital phenomenon, these historians select the indication of intellectual activity,
• 1:16:19
  Speaker 6: then say that this indication is the cause. But despite
• 1:16:22
  Speaker 6: their endeavors to prove that the cause of events lies
• 1:16:24
  Speaker 6: in intellectual activity, only by a great stretch can one
• 1:16:28
  Speaker 6: admit that there is any connection between intellectual activity and
• 1:16:31
  Speaker 6: the movement of peoples. And in no case can one
• 1:16:34
  Speaker 6: admit that intellectual activity controls people's actions, for that view
• 1:16:39
  Speaker 6: is not confirmed by such facts as the very cruel
• 1:16:41
  Speaker 6: murders of the French Revolution resulting from the doctrine of
• 1:16:44
  Speaker 6: the equality of man, or the very cruel wars and
• 1:16:47
  Speaker 6: executions resulting from the preaching of love. But even admitting
• 1:16:51
  Speaker 6: as correct all the cunningly devised arguments with which these
• 1:16:54
  Speaker 6: historians are filled, admitting that nations are governed by some
• 1:16:57
  Speaker 6: undefined force called an idea, history's essential question still remains unanswered.
• 1:17:03
  Speaker 6: And to the former power of monarchs and to the
• 1:17:05
  Speaker 6: influence of advisers and other people introduced by the universal historians,
• 1:17:09
  Speaker 6: another newer force, the idea, is added, the connection of
• 1:17:14
  Speaker 6: which with the masses needs explanation. It is possible to
• 1:17:18
  Speaker 6: understand that Napoleon had power, and so events occurred. With
• 1:17:21
  Speaker 6: some effort. One may even conceive that Napoleon together with
• 1:17:24
  Speaker 6: other influences, was the cause of an event. But how
• 1:17:28
  Speaker 6: a book Le Controdt's Social had the effect of making
• 1:17:32
  Speaker 6: Frenchmen begin to drown one another cannot be understood without
• 1:17:35
  Speaker 6: an explanation of the causal nexus of this new force
• 1:17:38
  Speaker 6: with the event. Undoubtedly, some relation exists between all who
• 1:17:41
  Speaker 6: live contemporaneously, and so it is possible to find some
• 1:17:45
  Speaker 6: connection between the intellectual activity of men and their historical movements,
• 1:17:49
  Speaker 6: just as such a connection may be found between the
• 1:17:51
  Speaker 6: movements of humanity and commerce, handicraft, gardening, or anything else
• 1:17:55
  Speaker 6: you please. But why intellectual activity is considered by the
• 1:17:59
  Speaker 6: historians of culture to be the cause or expression of
• 1:18:02
  Speaker 6: the whole historical movement is hard to understand. Only the
• 1:18:06
  Speaker 6: following considerations can have led historians to such a conclusion.
• 1:18:10
  Speaker 6: One that history is written by learned men, and so
• 1:18:13
  Speaker 6: it is natural and agreeable for them to think that
• 1:18:15
  Speaker 6: the activity of their class supplies the basis of the
• 1:18:18
  Speaker 6: movement of all humanity, just as a similar belief is
• 1:18:21
  Speaker 6: natural and agreeable to traders, agriculturists, and soldiers if they
• 1:18:26
  Speaker 6: do not express it. That is merely because traders and
• 1:18:29
  Speaker 6: soldiers do not write history, and two, that spiritual activity, enlightenment, civilization,
• 1:18:35
  Speaker 6: culture ideas are all indistinct in definite conceptions, under whose
• 1:18:40
  Speaker 6: banner it is very easy to use words having a
• 1:18:43
  Speaker 6: still less definite meaning, and which can therefore be readily
• 1:18:46
  Speaker 6: introduced into any theory, but not to speak of the
• 1:18:48
  Speaker 6: intrinsic quality of histories of this kind, which may possibly
• 1:18:52
  Speaker 6: even be of use to someone for something. The histories
• 1:18:55
  Speaker 6: of culture, to which all general histories tend more and
• 1:18:58
  Speaker 6: more to approximate, are signify from the fact that, after
• 1:19:01
  Speaker 6: seriously and minutely examining various religious, philosophic and political doctrines
• 1:19:06
  Speaker 6: as cause of events, as soon as they have to
• 1:19:08
  Speaker 6: describe an actual historic event, such as the campaign of
• 1:19:12
  Speaker 6: eighteen twelve, for instance, they involuntarily describe it as resulting
• 1:19:15
  Speaker 6: from an exercise of power and say plainly that that
• 1:19:19
  Speaker 6: was the result of Napoleon's will. Speaking so, the historians
• 1:19:23
  Speaker 6: of culture involuntarily contradict themselves and show that the new
• 1:19:27
  Speaker 6: force they have devised does not account for what happens
• 1:19:29
  Speaker 6: in history, and that history can only be explained by
• 1:19:32
  Speaker 6: introducing a power which they apparently do not recognize. End
• 1:19:37
  Speaker 6: of Chapter two.
• 1:19:38
  Speaker 1: A locomotive is moving. Someone asks what moves it. A
• 1:19:43
  Speaker 1: peasant says, the devil moves it. Another man says the
• 1:19:46
  Speaker 1: locomotive moves because its wheels go round. A third asserts
• 1:19:50
  Speaker 1: that the cause of its movement lies in the smoke
• 1:19:52
  Speaker 1: which the wind carries away. The peasant is irrefutable. He
• 1:19:56
  Speaker 1: has devised a complete explanation. To refute. Someone would have
• 1:20:00
  Speaker 1: to prove to him that there is no devil, or
• 1:20:03
  Speaker 1: another peasant would have to explain to him that it
• 1:20:05
  Speaker 1: is not the devil but a German who moves the locomotive.
• 1:20:08
  Speaker 1: Only then, as a result of the contradiction will they
• 1:20:12
  Speaker 1: see that they are both wrong. But the man who
• 1:20:14
  Speaker 1: says that the movement of the wheels is the cause
• 1:20:16
  Speaker 1: refutes himself, for having once begun to analyze, he ought
• 1:20:20
  Speaker 1: to go on and explain further why the wheels go round.
• 1:20:23
  Speaker 1: Until he has reached the ultimate cause of the movement
• 1:20:26
  Speaker 1: of the locomotive in the pressure of steaming the boiler,
• 1:20:29
  Speaker 1: He has no right to stop in his search for
• 1:20:31
  Speaker 1: the cause. The man who explains the movement of the
• 1:20:34
  Speaker 1: locomotive by the smoke that is carried back has noticed
• 1:20:38
  Speaker 1: that the wheels do not supply an explanation, and has
• 1:20:40
  Speaker 1: taken the first sign that occurs to him, and in
• 1:20:43
  Speaker 1: his turn, is offered that as an explanation. The only
• 1:20:46
  Speaker 1: conception that can explain the movement of the locomotive is
• 1:20:49
  Speaker 1: that of a force commensurate with a movement observed. The
• 1:20:52
  Speaker 1: only conception that can explain the movement of the peoples
• 1:20:55
  Speaker 1: is that of some force commensurate with the whole movement
• 1:20:58
  Speaker 1: of the peoples. Yet to supply this conception, various historians
• 1:21:03
  Speaker 1: take forces of different kinds, all of which are in
• 1:21:06
  Speaker 1: commensurate with the movement observed. Some see it as a
• 1:21:09
  Speaker 1: force directly inherent in heroes, as the peasant sees the
• 1:21:13
  Speaker 1: devil in the locomotive. Others as a force resulting from
• 1:21:17
  Speaker 1: several other forces, like the movement of the wheels. Others
• 1:21:20
  Speaker 1: again as an intellectual influence, like the smoke that is
• 1:21:24
  Speaker 1: blown away. So long as histories are written of separate individuals,
• 1:21:28
  Speaker 1: where the Caesars, Alexander's Luthers, voltaires are not the histories
• 1:21:33
  Speaker 1: of all, absolutely all those who take part in an event,
• 1:21:37
  Speaker 1: it is quite impossible to describe the movement of humanity
• 1:21:40
  Speaker 1: without the conception of a force compelling men to direct
• 1:21:44
  Speaker 1: their activity towards a certain end, and the only such
• 1:21:47
  Speaker 1: conception known to historians is that of power. This conception
• 1:21:52
  Speaker 1: is the one handle by means of which the material
• 1:21:54
  Speaker 1: of history, as at present expounded can be dealt with,
• 1:21:58
  Speaker 1: and any one who breaks that handle off, as Buckle did,
• 1:22:01
  Speaker 1: without finding some other method of treating historical material, merely
• 1:22:05
  Speaker 1: deprives himself of the one possible way of dealing with it.
• 1:22:09
  Speaker 1: The necessity of the conception of power as an explanation
• 1:22:12
  Speaker 1: of historical events is best demonstrated by the universal historians
• 1:22:16
  Speaker 1: and historians of culture themselves, for they professedly reject that conception,
• 1:22:21
  Speaker 1: but inevitably have recourse to it at every step in
• 1:22:26
  Speaker 1: dealing with humanity's inquiry. The science of history up to
• 1:22:29
  Speaker 1: now is like money in circulation, paper money and coin.
• 1:22:33
  Speaker 1: The biographies and special national histories are like paper money.
• 1:22:37
  Speaker 1: They can be used, and can circulate and fulfill their
• 1:22:39
  Speaker 1: purpose without harm to anyone, and even advantageously, as long
• 1:22:43
  Speaker 1: as no one asks what is the security behind them?
• 1:22:47
  Speaker 1: You need only forget to ask how the will of
• 1:22:50
  Speaker 1: heroes produces events, and such histories as tis will be
• 1:22:54
  Speaker 1: interesting and instructive, and may perhaps even possess a tinge
• 1:22:57
  Speaker 1: of poetry. But just as the real value of paper
• 1:23:01
  Speaker 1: money arise, either because being easy to make, too much
• 1:23:04
  Speaker 1: of it gets made, or because people try to exchange
• 1:23:07
  Speaker 1: it for gold, so also doubts concerning the real value
• 1:23:11
  Speaker 1: of such histories arise, either because to many of them
• 1:23:14
  Speaker 1: are written, or because, in his simplicity of heart, someone inquires,
• 1:23:19
  Speaker 1: by what force did Napoleon do this? That is, wants
• 1:23:23
  Speaker 1: to exchange the current paper money for the real gold
• 1:23:26
  Speaker 1: of actual comprehension. The writers of universal histories and of
• 1:23:31
  Speaker 1: the history of culture are like people who, recognizing the
• 1:23:35
  Speaker 1: defects of paper money, decide to substitute it for money
• 1:23:39
  Speaker 1: made of metal that has not the specific gravity of gold.
• 1:23:43
  Speaker 1: It may indeed make jingling coin, but will do no
• 1:23:45
  Speaker 1: more than that. Paper money may deceive the ignorant, but
• 1:23:50
  Speaker 1: nobody is deceived by tokens of base metal that have
• 1:23:52
  Speaker 1: no value but merely jingle. As gold is gold only
• 1:23:56
  Speaker 1: if it is serviceable, not merely for exchange, but also
• 1:23:59
  Speaker 1: for use. So universal historians will be valuable only when
• 1:24:03
  Speaker 1: they can reply to history's essential question, what is power?
• 1:24:08
  Speaker 1: The universal historians give contradictory replies to that question. While
• 1:24:12
  Speaker 1: the historians of culture evade it and answer something quite different,
• 1:24:17
  Speaker 1: and as counters of imitation. Gold can be used only
• 1:24:19
  Speaker 1: among a group of people who agree to accept them
• 1:24:22
  Speaker 1: as gold, or among those who do not know the
• 1:24:25
  Speaker 1: nature of gold. So universal historians and historians of culture
• 1:24:29
  Speaker 1: not answering humanity's essential question, serve as currency for some
• 1:24:32
  Speaker 1: purpose of their own only in universities and among the
• 1:24:35
  Speaker 1: massive readers who have a taste for what they call
• 1:24:38
  Speaker 1: serious reading. End of chapter three.
• 1:24:43
  Speaker 8: Having abandoned the conception of the ancients as to the
• 1:24:46
  Speaker 8: divine subjection of the will of a nation to some
• 1:24:49
  Speaker 8: chosen man, and a subjection of that man's will to
• 1:24:52
  Speaker 8: the deity, history cannot orout contradictions take a single step
• 1:24:59
  Speaker 8: till it has chosen one of two things, either a
• 1:25:02
  Speaker 8: return to the former belief in the direct intervention of
• 1:25:05
  Speaker 8: the deity in human affairs, or a definite explanation of
• 1:25:09
  Speaker 8: the meaning of the force reducing historical events and termed power.
• 1:25:16
  Speaker 8: A return to the first is impossible. The belief has
• 1:25:20
  Speaker 8: been destroyed, and so it is essential to explain what
• 1:25:24
  Speaker 8: is meant by power. Napoleon ordered an army to be
• 1:25:29
  Speaker 8: raised and go to war. We are so accustomed to
• 1:25:33
  Speaker 8: that idea, and have become so used to it that
• 1:25:37
  Speaker 8: the question why did six hundred thousand men go to
• 1:25:40
  Speaker 8: fight when Napoleon uttered certain words seems to us senseless.
• 1:25:46
  Speaker 8: He had the power, and so what he ordered was done.
• 1:25:51
  Speaker 8: This reply is quite satisfactory if we believe that a
• 1:25:55
  Speaker 8: power was given him by God. But as soon as
• 1:25:59
  Speaker 8: we do not admit that, it becomes essential to determine
• 1:26:03
  Speaker 8: what is this power of one man over others. It
• 1:26:09
  Speaker 8: cannot be the direct physical power of a strong man
• 1:26:12
  Speaker 8: over a weak one, the domination based on the application
• 1:26:16
  Speaker 8: or threat of physical force, like the power of Hercules.
• 1:26:20
  Speaker 8: Nor can it be based on the effect of moral force,
• 1:26:24
  Speaker 8: as in their simplicity some historians think who say that
• 1:26:28
  Speaker 8: the leading figures in history are heroes, that is, men
• 1:26:32
  Speaker 8: gifted with the special strength of soul and mind called genius.
• 1:26:38
  Speaker 8: This power cannot be based on the predominance of moral strength.
• 1:26:41
  Speaker 8: For not to mention heroes such as Napoleon, about whose
• 1:26:46
  Speaker 8: moral qualities opinions differ widely. History shows us that neither
• 1:26:52
  Speaker 8: a Louis the eleventh nor a Metaniche who ruled over
• 1:26:55
  Speaker 8: millions of people, had any particular moral qualities, but on
• 1:27:00
  Speaker 8: the contrary, were generally morally weaker than any of the
• 1:27:04
  Speaker 8: millions they ruled over. If the source of power lies
• 1:27:11
  Speaker 8: neither in the physical nor in the moral qualities of
• 1:27:14
  Speaker 8: him who possesses it, it must evidently be looked for
• 1:27:17
  Speaker 8: elsewhere and the relation to the people of the man
• 1:27:21
  Speaker 8: who wields the power. And that is how power is
• 1:27:25
  Speaker 8: understood by the signs of jurisprudence, that exchange bank of history,
• 1:27:31
  Speaker 8: which offers to exchange history's understanding of power for true gold.
• 1:27:38
  Speaker 8: Power is the collective will of the people, transferred by
• 1:27:41
  Speaker 8: expressed or tacit consent to their chosen rulers. In the
• 1:27:47
  Speaker 8: domain of jurisprudence, which consists of discussions of how a
• 1:27:51
  Speaker 8: state and power might be arranged, were it possible for
• 1:27:54
  Speaker 8: all that to be arranged, it is all very clear.
• 1:27:58
  Speaker 8: But when applied to history, that definition of power needs explanation.
• 1:28:05
  Speaker 8: The size of jurisprudence regards the state and power as
• 1:28:09
  Speaker 8: the ancients regarded fire, namely as something existing absolutely. But
• 1:28:15
  Speaker 8: for history, the state and power are merely phenomena, just
• 1:28:19
  Speaker 8: as for modern physics, fire is not an element but
• 1:28:23
  Speaker 8: a phenomenon. From this fundamental difference between the view held
• 1:28:29
  Speaker 8: by history and that held by jurisprudence. It follow that
• 1:28:33
  Speaker 8: jurisprudence can tell minutely how in its opinion power shall
• 1:28:38
  Speaker 8: be constituted, and what power existing immutably outside time is.
• 1:28:44
  Speaker 8: But to history's questions about the meaning of the mutations
• 1:28:47
  Speaker 8: of power in time, it can answer nothing. If power
• 1:28:53
  Speaker 8: be the collective will of the people transferred to their ruler,
• 1:28:57
  Speaker 8: was Buguchovu a representative of the will of the people?
• 1:29:01
  Speaker 8: If not, then why was Napoleon the first? Why was
• 1:29:05
  Speaker 8: Napoleon the third a criminal when he was taken prisoner
• 1:29:09
  Speaker 8: at Boulogne? And why later on were those criminals whom
• 1:29:13
  Speaker 8: he arrested to palace? Revolutions in which sometimes only two
• 1:29:20
  Speaker 8: or three pill take part, transfer the will of the
• 1:29:23
  Speaker 8: people to a new ruler. In international relations, is the
• 1:29:28
  Speaker 8: will of the people also transferred to their conqueror? Was
• 1:29:32
  Speaker 8: the will of the Confederation of the Rhine transferred to
• 1:29:36
  Speaker 8: Napoleon in eighteen o six? Was the will of the
• 1:29:39
  Speaker 8: Russian people transferred to Napoleon in eighteen o nine when
• 1:29:43
  Speaker 8: our army, in alliance with the French, went to fight
• 1:29:47
  Speaker 8: the Austrians. To these questions, three answers are possible either
• 1:29:55
  Speaker 8: to assume one that the will of the people is
• 1:29:58
  Speaker 8: always unconditionally transferred to the ruler or rulers they have chosen,
• 1:30:03
  Speaker 8: and that therefore every emergence of a new power, every
• 1:30:07
  Speaker 8: struggle against the power once appointed, should be absolutely regarded
• 1:30:13
  Speaker 8: as an infringement of the real power. Or two, that
• 1:30:18
  Speaker 8: the will of the people is transferred to the rulers conditionally,
• 1:30:23
  Speaker 8: under definite and known conditions, and to show that all limitations, conflicts,
• 1:30:29
  Speaker 8: and even destructions of power result from a non observance
• 1:30:33
  Speaker 8: by the rulers of the conditions under which their power
• 1:30:37
  Speaker 8: is entrusted to them. Or three that the will of
• 1:30:42
  Speaker 8: the people is delegated to the rulers conditionally, but that
• 1:30:46
  Speaker 8: the conditions are unknown and indefinite, and that the appearance
• 1:30:51
  Speaker 8: of several authorities, their struggles, and their force result solely
• 1:30:56
  Speaker 8: from the greater or lesser fulfillment by the rulers of
• 1:31:00
  Speaker 8: these unknown conditions on which the will of the people
• 1:31:04
  Speaker 8: is transferred from some people to others. And these are
• 1:31:09
  Speaker 8: the three ways in which the historians do explain the
• 1:31:13
  Speaker 8: relation of the people to their rulers. Some historians, those
• 1:31:19
  Speaker 8: biographical and specialist historians already referred to in their simplicity,
• 1:31:25
  Speaker 8: failing to understand the question of the meaning of power,
• 1:31:28
  Speaker 8: seem to consider that the collective will of the people
• 1:31:31
  Speaker 8: is unconditionally transferred to historical persons, and therefore, when describing
• 1:31:38
  Speaker 8: some single state, they assume that particular power to be
• 1:31:42
  Speaker 8: the one, absolute and real power, and that any other
• 1:31:46
  Speaker 8: force supposing this is not a power but a violation
• 1:31:50
  Speaker 8: of power mere violence. Their theory, suitable for primitive and
• 1:31:57
  Speaker 8: peaceful periods of history, has in convenience in application to
• 1:32:02
  Speaker 8: complex and stormy periods in the life of nations, during
• 1:32:06
  Speaker 8: which various powers arise simultaneously and struggle with one another.
• 1:32:11
  Speaker 8: That a legitimist historian will prove that a national convention,
• 1:32:16
  Speaker 8: the Directory, and Bonaparte were mere infringers of the true power,
• 1:32:22
  Speaker 8: while a republican and a Bonapartist will prove the one
• 1:32:27
  Speaker 8: that a convention and the other that the empire was
• 1:32:30
  Speaker 8: the real power, and that all the others were violations
• 1:32:34
  Speaker 8: of power. Evidently, the explanations furnished by these historians, being
• 1:32:40
  Speaker 8: mutually contradictory, can only satisfy young children recognizing the falsity
• 1:32:47
  Speaker 8: of this view of history. Another set of historians say
• 1:32:51
  Speaker 8: that power rests on a conditional delegation of the will
• 1:32:54
  Speaker 8: of the people to their rulers, and that historical leaders
• 1:32:58
  Speaker 8: have power only conditions on carrying out the program that
• 1:33:03
  Speaker 8: the will of the people has but tacit agreement prescribed
• 1:33:06
  Speaker 8: to them. But what this program consists in these historians
• 1:33:11
  Speaker 8: do not say, or if they do, they continually contradict
• 1:33:15
  Speaker 8: one another. Each historian, according to his view of what
• 1:33:21
  Speaker 8: constitutes a nation's progress, looks for these conditions in the greatness, wealth, freedom,
• 1:33:28
  Speaker 8: or enlightenment of citizens of France or some other country,
• 1:33:33
  Speaker 8: but not to mention the historian's contradictions as to the
• 1:33:37
  Speaker 8: nature of this program, or even admitting that some one
• 1:33:41
  Speaker 8: general program of these conditions exists. The facts of history
• 1:33:45
  Speaker 8: almost always contradict that theory. If the conditions under which
• 1:33:50
  Speaker 8: power is entrusted consist in the wealth, freedom, and enlightenment
• 1:33:55
  Speaker 8: of the people, how is it that Louis the fourteenths
• 1:33:59
  Speaker 8: and Ivan the Terrible and their reigns tranquility, while Louis
• 1:34:04
  Speaker 8: the sixteenth and Charles the First are executed by their people.
• 1:34:10
  Speaker 8: To this question, historians reply that Louis the Fourteenth's activity,
• 1:34:15
  Speaker 8: contrary to the programme reacted on Louis the sixteenth, But
• 1:34:21
  Speaker 8: why did it not react on Louis the fourteenth or
• 1:34:24
  Speaker 8: on Louis the fifteenth. Why should it react just on
• 1:34:28
  Speaker 8: Luis sixteenth? And what is a time limit for such reactions?
• 1:34:34
  Speaker 8: To these questions, there are and can be no answers.
• 1:34:39
  Speaker 8: Equally little does this view explain why for several centuries
• 1:34:45
  Speaker 8: the collective will is not withdrawn from certain rulers and
• 1:34:49
  Speaker 8: their heirs, and then suddenly, during a period of fifty years,
• 1:34:54
  Speaker 8: is transferred to the Convention, to the Directory, to Napoleon,
• 1:34:59
  Speaker 8: to Alexander, to Louis the eighteenth, to Napoleon again, the
• 1:35:04
  Speaker 8: Charles the tenth, to Louis Philippe, to a republican government,
• 1:35:09
  Speaker 8: and to Napoleon the third. When explaining these rapid transfers
• 1:35:15
  Speaker 8: of the people's will from one individual to another, especially
• 1:35:20
  Speaker 8: in view of international relations, conquests, and alliances, the historians
• 1:35:26
  Speaker 8: are obliged to admit that some of these transfers are
• 1:35:30
  Speaker 8: not normal delegations of the people's will, but are accidents
• 1:35:34
  Speaker 8: dependent on cunning, on mistakes, on craft, or on the
• 1:35:39
  Speaker 8: weakness of a diplomatist, a ruler, or a party leader.
• 1:35:44
  Speaker 8: So that the greater part of the events of history,
• 1:35:47
  Speaker 8: civil wars, revolutions, and conquests are presented by these historians
• 1:35:53
  Speaker 8: not as the results of free transferences of the people's will,
• 1:35:58
  Speaker 8: but as results of the ill director will of one
• 1:36:01
  Speaker 8: or more individuals. That is, once again, as usurpations of power.
• 1:36:08
  Speaker 8: And so these historians also see and admit historical events
• 1:36:14
  Speaker 8: which are exceptions to the theory. These historians resemble a
• 1:36:19
  Speaker 8: botanist who, having noticed that some plants grow from seeds
• 1:36:24
  Speaker 8: producing two cotyledans, should insist that all that grows does
• 1:36:29
  Speaker 8: so by sprouting into two leaves, and that the palm,
• 1:36:33
  Speaker 8: the mushroom, and even the oak, which blossom into full
• 1:36:36
  Speaker 8: growth and no longer resemble two leaves, are deviations from
• 1:36:41
  Speaker 8: the theory. Historians of the third class assume that the
• 1:36:46
  Speaker 8: will of the people is transferred to historic personages conditionally,
• 1:36:51
  Speaker 8: or that the conditions are unknown to us. They say
• 1:36:54
  Speaker 8: that historical personages have power only because they fulfill the
• 1:36:59
  Speaker 8: will of the time people, which has been delegated to them.
• 1:37:04
  Speaker 8: But in that case, if the force that moves nations
• 1:37:07
  Speaker 8: lies not in historic leaders but in the nations themselves,
• 1:37:11
  Speaker 8: what significance have those leaders. The leaders, these historians tell us,
• 1:37:18
  Speaker 8: express the will of the people. The activity of the
• 1:37:21
  Speaker 8: leaders represents the activity of the people. But in that
• 1:37:26
  Speaker 8: case the question arises whether all the activity of the
• 1:37:30
  Speaker 8: leaders serves as an expression of the people's will or
• 1:37:33
  Speaker 8: only some part of it. If the whole activity of
• 1:37:37
  Speaker 8: the leaders serves as the expression of the people's will,
• 1:37:41
  Speaker 8: as some historians suppose, then all the details of the
• 1:37:44
  Speaker 8: court scandals contained in the biographies of a Napoleon or
• 1:37:48
  Speaker 8: Catherine serve to express the life of the nation, which
• 1:37:52
  Speaker 8: is evident nonsense. But if it is only some particular
• 1:37:56
  Speaker 8: side of the activity of a historical leader which serves
• 1:38:01
  Speaker 8: to express a people's life, as other so called philosophical
• 1:38:05
  Speaker 8: historians believe, then to determine which side of the activity
• 1:38:09
  Speaker 8: of a leader expresses the nation's life, we have first
• 1:38:13
  Speaker 8: of all to know in what the nation's life consists.
• 1:38:18
  Speaker 8: Met by this difficulty, historians of that class devise some
• 1:38:23
  Speaker 8: most obscure, impalpable, and general abstraction which can cover all
• 1:38:28
  Speaker 8: conceivable currencies, and declare this abstraction to be the aim
• 1:38:33
  Speaker 8: of humanity's movement. The most usual generalizations adopted by almost
• 1:38:39
  Speaker 8: all historians are freedom, equality, enlightenment, progress, civilization, and culture.
• 1:38:49
  Speaker 8: Postulating some generalization has the goal of the movement of humanity,
• 1:38:54
  Speaker 8: the historians study the men of whom the greatest number
• 1:38:58
  Speaker 8: of monuments have remained, kings, ministers, generals, authors, reformers, popes,
• 1:39:05
  Speaker 8: and journalists, to the extent to which, in their opinion,
• 1:39:10
  Speaker 8: these persons have promoted or hindered that abstraction. But as
• 1:39:15
  Speaker 8: it is in no way proved that the aim of
• 1:39:18
  Speaker 8: humanity does consist in freedom, equality, enlightenment, or civilization, and
• 1:39:24
  Speaker 8: as the connection of the people with the rulers and
• 1:39:27
  Speaker 8: enlighteners of humanity is only based on the arbitrary assumption
• 1:39:32
  Speaker 8: that the collective will of the people is always transferred
• 1:39:35
  Speaker 8: to the men whom we have noticed. It happens that
• 1:39:39
  Speaker 8: the activity of the millions who migrate, burn houses, abandon agriculture,
• 1:39:44
  Speaker 8: and destroy one another never is expressed in the account
• 1:39:48
  Speaker 8: of the activity of some dozen people who did not
• 1:39:52
  Speaker 8: burn houses, practice agriculture, or slay their fellow creatures. History
• 1:39:58
  Speaker 8: proves this at every turn. Is the ferment of the
• 1:40:02
  Speaker 8: peoples of the West at the end of the eighteenth century,
• 1:40:05
  Speaker 8: and their drive eastward, explained by the activity of Louis
• 1:40:09
  Speaker 8: the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth their mistresses and ministers, and
• 1:40:15
  Speaker 8: by the lives of Napoleon, Rousseau, di Droux, Boumasche and others.
• 1:40:22
  Speaker 8: Is the movement of the Russian people eastward to Kazan
• 1:40:25
  Speaker 8: and Siberia, expressed by details of the morbid character of
• 1:40:29
  Speaker 8: Ivan the Terrible and by his correspondence with Kurrupsky. Is
• 1:40:34
  Speaker 8: the movement of the peoples at the time of the Crusade,
• 1:40:38
  Speaker 8: explained by the life and activity of the Godfreys and
• 1:40:41
  Speaker 8: the Louises and their ladies. For us, that movement of
• 1:40:46
  Speaker 8: the peoples from west to east, without leaders, with the
• 1:40:49
  Speaker 8: crowd of vagrants and with Peter the Hermit, remains incomprehensible.
• 1:40:55
  Speaker 8: And yet more incomprehensible is the cessation of that movement
• 1:41:00
  Speaker 8: in the rational and sacred aim for the Crusade. The
• 1:41:03
  Speaker 8: deliference of Jerusalem had been clearly defined by historic leaders. Popes,
• 1:41:09
  Speaker 8: kings and knights incited the peoples to free the Holy Land,
• 1:41:13
  Speaker 8: but the people did not go. For the unknown cause
• 1:41:17
  Speaker 8: which had previously impelled them to go no longer existed.
• 1:41:21
  Speaker 8: The history of the Godfrees and theminising Us can evidently
• 1:41:25
  Speaker 8: not cover the life of the peoples, and the history
• 1:41:28
  Speaker 8: of the Godfrees and theminising Us has remained the history
• 1:41:32
  Speaker 8: of Godfrees and minising Us, but the history of the
• 1:41:35
  Speaker 8: life of the peoples and their impulses has remained unknown still,
• 1:41:41
  Speaker 8: as does the history of authors and reformers explain to
• 1:41:44
  Speaker 8: us the life of the peoples. The history of culture
• 1:41:50
  Speaker 8: explains to us the impulses and conditions of life and
• 1:41:54
  Speaker 8: thoughts of a writer or a reformer. We learn that
• 1:41:58
  Speaker 8: Luther had a hot tien and said such and such things.
• 1:42:03
  Speaker 8: We learn that Rousseau was suspicious and wrote such and
• 1:42:07
  Speaker 8: such books. But we do not learn why after the
• 1:42:11
  Speaker 8: Reformation to peoples massacred one another, nor why during the
• 1:42:16
  Speaker 8: French Revolution the guillotine one another. If we unite both
• 1:42:22
  Speaker 8: these kinds of history, as is done by the newest historians,
• 1:42:27
  Speaker 8: we shall have the history of monarchs and writers, but
• 1:42:30
  Speaker 8: not the history of the life of the peoples. End
• 1:42:36
  Speaker 8: of chapter four.
• 1:42:38
  Speaker 9: The life of the nations is not contained in the
• 1:42:40
  Speaker 9: lives of a few men, for the connection between those
• 1:42:43
  Speaker 9: men and the nations has not been found. The theory
• 1:42:46
  Speaker 9: that this connection is based on the transference of the
• 1:42:49
  Speaker 9: collective will of a people to certain historical personages is
• 1:42:53
  Speaker 9: a hypothesis unconfirmed by the experience of history. The theory
• 1:42:58
  Speaker 9: of the transference of the collective will of the people
• 1:43:01
  Speaker 9: to historic persons may perhaps explain much in the domain
• 1:43:05
  Speaker 9: of jurisprudence and the essential for its purposes, but in
• 1:43:09
  Speaker 9: its application to history. As soon as revolutions, conquests, or
• 1:43:13
  Speaker 9: civil wars occur, that is, as soon as history begins,
• 1:43:17
  Speaker 9: that theory explains nothing. The theory seems irrefutable just because
• 1:43:22
  Speaker 9: the act of transference of the people's will cannot be verified,
• 1:43:26
  Speaker 9: for it never occurred. Whatever happens, and whoever may stand
• 1:43:30
  Speaker 9: at the head of affairs, the theory can always say
• 1:43:33
  Speaker 9: that such and such a person took the lead because
• 1:43:36
  Speaker 9: the collective will was transferred to him. The replies this
• 1:43:40
  Speaker 9: theory gives to historical questions are like the replies of
• 1:43:43
  Speaker 9: a man who, watching the movements of a herd of cattle,
• 1:43:46
  Speaker 9: and paying no attention to the varying quality of the
• 1:43:49
  Speaker 9: pasturage in different parts of the field or to the
• 1:43:51
  Speaker 9: driving of the herdsman, should attribute the direction the herd
• 1:43:55
  Speaker 9: takes to what animal happens to be at its head,
• 1:43:59
  Speaker 9: the herd goes in that direction because the animal in
• 1:44:02
  Speaker 9: front leaves it, and the collective will of all the
• 1:44:04
  Speaker 9: other animals is vested in that leader. That is what
• 1:44:07
  Speaker 9: historians of the first class say those who assume the
• 1:44:11
  Speaker 9: unconditional transference of the people's will. If the animals leading
• 1:44:16
  Speaker 9: the herd change, this happens because the collective will of
• 1:44:19
  Speaker 9: all the animals is transferred from one leader to another,
• 1:44:22
  Speaker 9: according to whether the animal is or is not leading
• 1:44:25
  Speaker 9: them in the direction selected by the whole herd. Such
• 1:44:29
  Speaker 9: is the reply of historians who assume that the collective
• 1:44:32
  Speaker 9: will of the people is delegated to rulers under conditions
• 1:44:35
  Speaker 9: which they regard as known. With this method of observation,
• 1:44:39
  Speaker 9: it often happens that the observer, influenced by the direction
• 1:44:43
  Speaker 9: he himself prefers, regards those as leaders who, owing to
• 1:44:47
  Speaker 9: the people's change of direction, are no longer in front,
• 1:44:50
  Speaker 9: but on one side or even in the rear. If
• 1:44:54
  Speaker 9: the animals in front are continually changing and the direction
• 1:44:57
  Speaker 9: of the whole herd is constantly altered, this is because
• 1:45:01
  Speaker 9: in order to follow a given direction, the animals transfer
• 1:45:04
  Speaker 9: their will to the animals that have attracted our attention,
• 1:45:07
  Speaker 9: and to study the movements of the herd, we must
• 1:45:09
  Speaker 9: watch the movements of all the prominent animals moving on
• 1:45:12
  Speaker 9: all sides of the herd. So say the third class
• 1:45:16
  Speaker 9: of historians, who regard all historical persons, from monarchs to journalists,
• 1:45:20
  Speaker 9: as the expression of their age. The theory of the
• 1:45:24
  Speaker 9: transference of the will of the people to historic persons
• 1:45:28
  Speaker 9: is merely a paraphrase, a restatement of the question. In
• 1:45:31
  Speaker 9: other words, what causes historical events power? What is power?
• 1:45:38
  Speaker 9: Power is the collective will of the people transferred to
• 1:45:41
  Speaker 9: one person under What condition? Is the will of the
• 1:45:45
  Speaker 9: people delegated to one person on condition that that person
• 1:45:49
  Speaker 9: expresses the will of the whole people? That is power?
• 1:45:53
  Speaker 9: Is power? In other words, power is a word, the
• 1:45:56
  Speaker 9: meaning of which we do not understand. If the realm
• 1:46:00
  Speaker 9: of human knowledge were confined to abstract reasoning, then having
• 1:46:04
  Speaker 9: subjected to criticism the explanation of power that juridical science
• 1:46:08
  Speaker 9: gives us, humanity would conclude that power is merely a
• 1:46:12
  Speaker 9: word and has no real existence. But to understand phenomena,
• 1:46:16
  Speaker 9: man has, besides abstract reasoning, experience by which he verifies
• 1:46:21
  Speaker 9: his reflections, and experience tells us that power is not
• 1:46:25
  Speaker 9: merely a word, but an actually existing phenomenon, not to
• 1:46:30
  Speaker 9: speak of the fact that no description of the collective
• 1:46:33
  Speaker 9: activity of men can do without the conception of power.
• 1:46:36
  Speaker 9: The existence of power is proved both by history and
• 1:46:39
  Speaker 9: by observing contemporary events. Whenever an event occurs, a man
• 1:46:44
  Speaker 9: appears or men appear by whose will the event seems
• 1:46:48
  Speaker 9: to have taken place. Napoleon the third issues a decree
• 1:46:52
  Speaker 9: and the French go to Mexico. The King of Prussia
• 1:46:56
  Speaker 9: and Bismarck issued decrees and an army enters Bohemia. Napoleon
• 1:47:01
  Speaker 9: IE issues a decree and an army enters Russia. Alexander
• 1:47:05
  Speaker 9: IE gives a command and the French submit to the Bourbons.
• 1:47:09
  Speaker 9: Experience shows us that whatever event occurs, it is always
• 1:47:12
  Speaker 9: related to the will of one or of several men
• 1:47:15
  Speaker 9: who have decreeded. The historians, in accord with the old
• 1:47:20
  Speaker 9: habit of acknowledging divine intervention in human affairs, want to
• 1:47:23
  Speaker 9: see the cause of events in the expression of the
• 1:47:26
  Speaker 9: will of some one endowed with power. But that supposition
• 1:47:30
  Speaker 9: is not confirmed either by reason or by experience. On
• 1:47:35
  Speaker 9: the one side, reflection shows that the expression of a
• 1:47:37
  Speaker 9: man's will, his words are only part of the general
• 1:47:41
  Speaker 9: activity expressed in an event, as for instance, in a
• 1:47:44
  Speaker 9: war or a revolution, and so without assuming an incomprehensible
• 1:47:49
  Speaker 9: supernatural force a miracle, one cannot admit that words can
• 1:47:54
  Speaker 9: be the immediate cause of the movements of millions of men.
• 1:47:58
  Speaker 9: On the other hand, even if we admitted that words
• 1:48:01
  Speaker 9: could be the cause of events, history shows that the
• 1:48:04
  Speaker 9: expression of the will of historical personages does not in
• 1:48:08
  Speaker 9: most cases produce any effect. That is to say, their
• 1:48:11
  Speaker 9: commands are often not executed, and sometimes the very opposite
• 1:48:15
  Speaker 9: of what they order occurs. Without admitting divine intervention in
• 1:48:20
  Speaker 9: the affairs of humanity, we cannot regard power as the
• 1:48:24
  Speaker 9: cause of events. Power, from the standpoint of experience, is
• 1:48:29
  Speaker 9: merely the relation that exists between the expression of some
• 1:48:32
  Speaker 9: one's will and the execution of that will by others.
• 1:48:36
  Speaker 9: To explain the conditions of that relationship, we must first
• 1:48:40
  Speaker 9: establish a conception of the expression of will, referring it
• 1:48:43
  Speaker 9: to man and not to the deity. If the deity
• 1:48:47
  Speaker 9: issues a command expresses his will, as ancient history tells us,
• 1:48:51
  Speaker 9: the expression of that will is independent of time and
• 1:48:54
  Speaker 9: is not caused by anything for the divinity is not
• 1:48:58
  Speaker 9: controlled by an event. But speaking of commands, that are
• 1:49:01
  Speaker 9: the expression of the will of men acting in time
• 1:49:04
  Speaker 9: and in relation to one another. To explain the connection
• 1:49:08
  Speaker 9: of commands with events, we must restore one the condition
• 1:49:12
  Speaker 9: of all that takes place, the continuity of movement in time,
• 1:49:16
  Speaker 9: both of the events and of the person who commands,
• 1:49:19
  Speaker 9: and two the inevitability of the connection between the person
• 1:49:23
  Speaker 9: commanding and those who execute his command. End of Chapter five.
• 1:49:29
  Speaker 9: Only the expression of the will of the deity, not
• 1:49:32
  Speaker 9: dependent on time, can relate to a whole series of
• 1:49:34
  Speaker 9: events occurring over a period of years or centuries, And
• 1:49:38
  Speaker 9: only the deity, independent of everything, can, by his sole will,
• 1:49:43
  Speaker 9: determine the direction of humanity's movement. But man acts in
• 1:49:47
  Speaker 9: time and himself takes part in what occurs. Reinstating the
• 1:49:52
  Speaker 9: first condition omitted, that of time, we see that no
• 1:49:56
  Speaker 9: command can be executed without some preceding order having been given,
• 1:50:00
  Speaker 9: rendering the execution of the last command possible. No command
• 1:50:04
  Speaker 9: ever appears spontaneously or itself covers a whole series of occurrences,
• 1:50:10
  Speaker 9: but each command follows from another and never refers to
• 1:50:13
  Speaker 9: a whole series of events, but always to one moment
• 1:50:16
  Speaker 9: only of an event. When, for instance, we say that
• 1:50:21
  Speaker 9: Napoleon ordered armies to go to war, we combine in
• 1:50:24
  Speaker 9: one simultaneous expression a whole series of consecutive commands dependent
• 1:50:29
  Speaker 9: one on another. Napoleon could not have commanded an invasion
• 1:50:33
  Speaker 9: of Russia, and never did so. Today he ordered such
• 1:50:37
  Speaker 9: and such papers to be written to Vienna, to Berlin,
• 1:50:40
  Speaker 9: and to Petersburg tomorrow, such and such decrees and orders
• 1:50:44
  Speaker 9: to the army, the fleet, the commissariat, and so on
• 1:50:47
  Speaker 9: and so on, millions of commands which formed a whole
• 1:50:51
  Speaker 9: series corresponding to a series of events which brought the
• 1:50:54
  Speaker 9: French armies into Russia. If throughout his reign Napoleon gave
• 1:50:59
  Speaker 9: commands concerning an invasion of England and expended on no other,
• 1:51:03
  Speaker 9: undertaking so much time and effort, and yet during his
• 1:51:06
  Speaker 9: whole reign never once attempted to execute that design, but
• 1:51:10
  Speaker 9: undertook an expedition into Russia, with which country he considered
• 1:51:14
  Speaker 9: it desirable to be in alliance, a conviction he repeatedly
• 1:51:17
  Speaker 9: expressed this came about because his commands did not correspond
• 1:51:22
  Speaker 9: to the course of events in the first case, but
• 1:51:24
  Speaker 9: did so correspond in the latter. For an order to
• 1:51:29
  Speaker 9: be certainly executed, it is necessary that a man should
• 1:51:32
  Speaker 9: order what can be executed. But to know what can
• 1:51:36
  Speaker 9: and what cannot be executed is impossible, not only in
• 1:51:39
  Speaker 9: the case of Napoleon's invasion of Russia, in which millions participated,
• 1:51:44
  Speaker 9: but even in the simplest event, for in either case
• 1:51:47
  Speaker 9: millions of obstacles may arise to prevent its execution. Every
• 1:51:52
  Speaker 9: order executed is always one of an immense number unexecuted.
• 1:51:57
  Speaker 9: All the impossible orders inconsistent with the course of events
• 1:52:00
  Speaker 9: remain unexecuted. Only the possible ones get linked up with
• 1:52:04
  Speaker 9: the consecutive series of commands corresponding to a series of
• 1:52:07
  Speaker 9: events and are executed. Our false conception that an event
• 1:52:13
  Speaker 9: is caused by a command which precedes it is due
• 1:52:15
  Speaker 9: to the fact that when the event has taken place,
• 1:52:18
  Speaker 9: and out of thousands of others, those few commands which
• 1:52:21
  Speaker 9: were consistent with that event have been executed, we forget
• 1:52:24
  Speaker 9: about the others that were not executed, because they could
• 1:52:27
  Speaker 9: not be Apart from that, the chief source of our
• 1:52:30
  Speaker 9: error in this matter is due to the fact that
• 1:52:32
  Speaker 9: in the historical accounts, a whole series of innumerable, diverse
• 1:52:36
  Speaker 9: and petty events such for instance, is all those which
• 1:52:40
  Speaker 9: led the French armies to Russia is generalized into one
• 1:52:44
  Speaker 9: event in accord with the result produced by that series
• 1:52:47
  Speaker 9: of events. In corresponding with this generalization, the whole series
• 1:52:51
  Speaker 9: of commands is also generalized into a single expression of will.
• 1:52:56
  Speaker 9: We say that Napoleon wished to invade Russia and invaded it.
• 1:53:00
  Speaker 9: In reality, in all Napoleon's activity, we never find anything
• 1:53:04
  Speaker 9: resembling an expression of that wish, but find a series
• 1:53:08
  Speaker 9: of orders or expressions of his will, very variously and
• 1:53:12
  Speaker 9: indefinitely directed amid a long series of unexecuted orders of Napoleons.
• 1:53:18
  Speaker 9: One series for the campaign of eighteen twelve was carried
• 1:53:21
  Speaker 9: out not because those orders differed in any way from
• 1:53:25
  Speaker 9: the other unexecuted orders, but because they coincided with the
• 1:53:28
  Speaker 9: course of events that led the French army into Russia.
• 1:53:31
  Speaker 9: Just as in stencil work, this or that figure comes
• 1:53:34
  Speaker 9: out not because the color was laid on from this
• 1:53:37
  Speaker 9: side or in that way, but because it was laid
• 1:53:41
  Speaker 9: on from all sides over the figure cut in the stencil.
• 1:53:45
  Speaker 9: So that examining the relation in time of the commands
• 1:53:48
  Speaker 9: to the events, we find that a command can never
• 1:53:51
  Speaker 9: be the cause of the event, but that a certain
• 1:53:54
  Speaker 9: definite dependence exists between the two. To understand in what
• 1:53:58
  Speaker 9: this dependence consists, it is necessary to reinstate another omitted
• 1:54:02
  Speaker 9: condition of every command proceeding not from the deity but
• 1:54:06
  Speaker 9: from a man, which is that the man who gives
• 1:54:09
  Speaker 9: the command himself takes part in. This relation of the
• 1:54:13
  Speaker 9: commander to those he commands is just what is called power.
• 1:54:18
  Speaker 9: This relation consists in the following. For common action, people
• 1:54:23
  Speaker 9: always unite in certain combinations in which, regardless of the
• 1:54:26
  Speaker 9: difference of the aims set for the common action, the
• 1:54:29
  Speaker 9: relation between those taking part in it is always the same.
• 1:54:34
  Speaker 9: Men uniting in these combinations always assume such relations toward
• 1:54:38
  Speaker 9: one another that the larger number take a more direct
• 1:54:41
  Speaker 9: share and the smaller number a less direct share in
• 1:54:44
  Speaker 9: the collective action for which they have combined. Of all
• 1:54:48
  Speaker 9: the combinations in which men unite for collective action, one
• 1:54:52
  Speaker 9: of the most striking and definite examples is an army.
• 1:54:56
  Speaker 9: Every army is composed of lower grades of the service
• 1:55:00
  Speaker 9: rank and file, of whom there are always the greater
• 1:55:02
  Speaker 9: number of the next higher military rank. Corporals and non
• 1:55:06
  Speaker 9: commissioned officers of whom there are fewer, and of still
• 1:55:10
  Speaker 9: higher officers of whom there are still fewer, and so
• 1:55:13
  Speaker 9: on to the highest military command, which is concentrated in
• 1:55:16
  Speaker 9: one person. A military organization may be quite correctly compared
• 1:55:21
  Speaker 9: to a cone, of which the base with the largest
• 1:55:24
  Speaker 9: diameter consists of the rank and file. The next higher
• 1:55:28
  Speaker 9: and smaller section of the cone consists of the next
• 1:55:31
  Speaker 9: higher graves of the army, and so on to the apex,
• 1:55:34
  Speaker 9: the point of which will represent the commander in chief.
• 1:55:38
  Speaker 9: The soldiers of whom there are the most form the
• 1:55:40
  Speaker 9: lower section of the cone and its base. The soldier
• 1:55:44
  Speaker 9: himself does the stabbing, hacking, burning, and pillaging, and always
• 1:55:48
  Speaker 9: receives orders for these actions from men above him. He
• 1:55:51
  Speaker 9: himself never gives an order. The non commissioned officers, of
• 1:55:56
  Speaker 9: whom there are fewer, perform the action itself less frequently
• 1:55:59
  Speaker 9: than the soul, but they already give commands. An officer
• 1:56:04
  Speaker 9: still less often acts directly himself, but commands still more frequently.
• 1:56:09
  Speaker 9: A general does nothing but command the troops, indicates the objective,
• 1:56:13
  Speaker 9: and hardly ever uses a weapon himself. The commander in
• 1:56:17
  Speaker 9: chief never takes direct part in the action itself, but
• 1:56:20
  Speaker 9: only gives general orders concerning the movement of the mass
• 1:56:23
  Speaker 9: of the troops. A similar relation of people to one
• 1:56:27
  Speaker 9: another is seen in every combination of men for common
• 1:56:30
  Speaker 9: activity in agriculture, trade, and every administration. And so, without
• 1:56:35
  Speaker 9: particularly analyzing all the contiguous sections of a cone, and
• 1:56:39
  Speaker 9: of the ranks of an army, or the ranks in
• 1:56:41
  Speaker 9: positions in any administrative or public business, whatever, from the
• 1:56:45
  Speaker 9: lowest to the highest, we see a law by which
• 1:56:48
  Speaker 9: men to take associated action combine in such relations that
• 1:56:53
  Speaker 9: the more directly they participate in performing the action, the
• 1:56:56
  Speaker 9: less they can command, and the more numerous they are,
• 1:57:00
  Speaker 9: while the less their direct participation in the action itself,
• 1:57:04
  Speaker 9: the more they command, and the fewer of them there are.
• 1:57:07
  Speaker 9: Rising in this way from the lowest ranks to the
• 1:57:09
  Speaker 9: man at the top, who takes the least direct share
• 1:57:12
  Speaker 9: in the action and directs his activity chiefly to commanding.
• 1:57:17
  Speaker 9: This relation of the men who command to those they
• 1:57:20
  Speaker 9: command is what constitutes the essence of the conception called power.
• 1:57:26
  Speaker 9: Having restored the condition of time under which all events occur,
• 1:57:29
  Speaker 9: find that a command is executed only when it is
• 1:57:32
  Speaker 9: related to a corresponding series of events. Restoring the essential
• 1:57:37
  Speaker 9: condition of relation between those who command and those who execute.
• 1:57:41
  Speaker 9: We find that, by the very nature of the case,
• 1:57:43
  Speaker 9: those who command take the smallest part in the action itself,
• 1:57:47
  Speaker 9: and that their activity is exclusively directed to commanding. End
• 1:57:53
  Speaker 9: of Chapter six.
• 1:57:54
  Speaker 1: When an event is taking place, people express their opinions
• 1:57:58
  Speaker 1: and wishes about it, And as the event results from
• 1:58:01
  Speaker 1: the collective activity of many people, some one of the
• 1:58:04
  Speaker 1: opinions or wishes expressed is sure to be fulfilled. If
• 1:58:07
  Speaker 1: but approximately when one of the opinions expressed is fulfilled,
• 1:58:12
  Speaker 1: that opinion gets connected with the event as a command
• 1:58:15
  Speaker 1: preceding it. Men are hauling a log. Each of them
• 1:58:19
  Speaker 1: expresses his opinion as to how and where to haul it.
• 1:58:22
  Speaker 1: They haul the log away, and it happens that this
• 1:58:25
  Speaker 1: is done as one of them said, he ordered it.
• 1:58:28
  Speaker 1: There we have command and power in their primary form.
• 1:58:31
  Speaker 1: The man who worked most with his hands could not
• 1:58:34
  Speaker 1: think so much about what he was doing, or reflect
• 1:58:36
  Speaker 1: on or command what would result from the common activity,
• 1:58:40
  Speaker 1: while the man who commanded more would evidently work less
• 1:58:43
  Speaker 1: with his hands on account of his greater verbal activity.
• 1:58:47
  Speaker 1: When some larger concourse of men direct their activity to
• 1:58:50
  Speaker 1: a common name, there is a yet sharper division of
• 1:58:53
  Speaker 1: those who, because their activity is given to directing and commanding,
• 1:58:57
  Speaker 1: take less part in the direct work. When a man
• 1:59:01
  Speaker 1: works alone, he always has a certain set of reflections, which,
• 1:59:04
  Speaker 1: as it seems to him, directed his past activity, justify
• 1:59:08
  Speaker 1: his present activity and guide him in planning his future actions.
• 1:59:12
  Speaker 1: Just the same is done by a concourse of people,
• 1:59:14
  Speaker 1: allowing those who do not take a direct part in
• 1:59:17
  Speaker 1: the activity to devise considerations, justifications, and surmises concerning their
• 1:59:22
  Speaker 1: collective activity. For reasons know nor unknown to us, the
• 1:59:26
  Speaker 1: French began to drown and kill one another, and corresponding
• 1:59:30
  Speaker 1: to the event, its justification appears in people's belief that
• 1:59:34
  Speaker 1: this was necessary for the welfare of France, for liberty
• 1:59:38
  Speaker 1: and for a quality. People ceased to kill one another,
• 1:59:42
  Speaker 1: and this event was accompanied by its justification in the
• 1:59:45
  Speaker 1: necessity for a centralization of power resists to Europe, and
• 1:59:48
  Speaker 1: so on. Men went from the west to the East,
• 1:59:51
  Speaker 1: killing their fellow men, and the event was accompanied by
• 1:59:54
  Speaker 1: phrases about the glory of France, the baseness of England,
• 1:59:57
  Speaker 1: and so on. History shows us that these justifications of
• 2:00:01
  Speaker 1: the events have no common sense under all contradictory, as
• 2:00:05
  Speaker 1: in the case of killing a man as the result
• 2:00:06
  Speaker 1: of recognizing his rights, and the killing of millions in
• 2:00:09
  Speaker 1: Russia for the humiliation of England. But these justifications have
• 2:00:13
  Speaker 1: a very necessary significance in their own day. These justifications
• 2:00:18
  Speaker 1: released those who produce the events from moral responsibility. These
• 2:00:22
  Speaker 1: temporary aims are like the broom fixed in front of
• 2:00:25
  Speaker 1: a locomotive to clear the snow from the rails in front.
• 2:00:28
  Speaker 1: They clear men's moral responsibilities from their path. Without such justification,
• 2:00:34
  Speaker 1: there would be no reply to the simplest question that
• 2:00:36
  Speaker 1: presents itself when examining each historical event, How is it
• 2:00:40
  Speaker 1: that millions of men commit collective crimes, make war, commit
• 2:00:44
  Speaker 1: murder and so on? With the present complex forms of
• 2:00:48
  Speaker 1: political and social life in Europe, can any event that
• 2:00:51
  Speaker 1: is not prescribed, decreed, or ordered by monarchs, minister's parliaments
• 2:00:55
  Speaker 1: or newspapers be imagined? Is there any collective action which
• 2:00:59
  Speaker 1: cannot find a justification in political unity, in patriotism, in
• 2:01:02
  Speaker 1: the balance of power, or in civilization? So that every
• 2:01:06
  Speaker 1: event that occurs inevitably coincides with some expressed wish and
• 2:01:11
  Speaker 1: receiving a justification, presents itself as the result of the
• 2:01:14
  Speaker 1: will of one man or of several men. In whatever
• 2:01:19
  Speaker 1: direction a ship moves, the flow of the waves it
• 2:01:21
  Speaker 1: cuts will always be noticeable ahead of it. To those
• 2:01:24
  Speaker 1: on board the ship, the movement of those waves will
• 2:01:26
  Speaker 1: be the only perceptible motion. Only by watching closely, moment
• 2:01:31
  Speaker 1: by moment, the movement of that flow, and comparing it
• 2:01:35
  Speaker 1: with the movement of the ship, do we convince ourselves
• 2:01:37
  Speaker 1: that every bit of it is occasioned by the forward
• 2:01:40
  Speaker 1: movement of the ship. And though we were led into
• 2:01:43
  Speaker 1: error by the fact that we ourselves were unperceptibly moving,
• 2:01:47
  Speaker 1: we see the same if we watch moment by moment
• 2:01:50
  Speaker 1: the movement of historical characters. That is, we establish the
• 2:01:53
  Speaker 1: inevitable condition of all that occurs, the continuity of movement
• 2:01:57
  Speaker 1: in time, and do not lose sight of the essential
• 2:02:00
  Speaker 1: connection of historical persons with the masses. When the ship
• 2:02:04
  Speaker 1: moves in one direction, there is one and the same
• 2:02:06
  Speaker 1: wave ahead of it. When it turns frequently, the wave
• 2:02:09
  Speaker 1: ahead of it also turns frequently. But wherever it may turn,
• 2:02:13
  Speaker 1: there will always be the wave anticipating its movement. Whatever happens,
• 2:02:18
  Speaker 1: it always appears that just that event was foreseen and decreed.
• 2:02:21
  Speaker 1: Wherever the ship may go, a rush of water, which
• 2:02:24
  Speaker 1: neither directs nor increases its movement, foams ahead of it,
• 2:02:28
  Speaker 1: and at a distance seems to us not really to
• 2:02:30
  Speaker 1: move of itself, but to govern the ship's movement. Also,
• 2:02:35
  Speaker 1: examining only those expressions of the will of historical persons which,
• 2:02:38
  Speaker 1: as commands, were related to events, historians have assumed that
• 2:02:42
  Speaker 1: the events depended on those commands. But examining the events
• 2:02:47
  Speaker 1: themselves and the connection in which the historical persons stood
• 2:02:51
  Speaker 1: to the people, we have found that they and their
• 2:02:53
  Speaker 1: orders were dependent on events. The incontestable proof of this
• 2:02:58
  Speaker 1: deduction is that how other many commands were issued. The
• 2:03:02
  Speaker 1: event does not take place unless there are other causes
• 2:03:05
  Speaker 1: for it. But as soon as an event occurs, be
• 2:03:08
  Speaker 1: it what it may. Than. Out of all the continual
• 2:03:11
  Speaker 1: expressed wishes of different people, some will always be found which,
• 2:03:15
  Speaker 1: by their meaning and their time of utterance, are related
• 2:03:17
  Speaker 1: as commands to the events. Arriving at this conclusion, we
• 2:03:22
  Speaker 1: can reply directly and positively to these two essential questions
• 2:03:26
  Speaker 1: of history. Number one, what is power? Number two? What
• 2:03:31
  Speaker 1: force produces the movement of the nations? Number one, Power
• 2:03:36
  Speaker 1: is the relation of a given person to other individuals,
• 2:03:39
  Speaker 1: in which the more, this person expresses opinions, predictions, and
• 2:03:42
  Speaker 1: justifications of the collective action that is performed, the less
• 2:03:46
  Speaker 1: is his participation in that action. Number two, The movement
• 2:03:50
  Speaker 1: of nations is caused not by power, nor by intellectual activity,
• 2:03:55
  Speaker 1: nor even by a combination of the two, as historians
• 2:03:57
  Speaker 1: have supposed, but by the activity of all the people
• 2:04:01
  Speaker 1: who participate in the events, and who always combine in
• 2:04:04
  Speaker 1: such a way that those taking the largest direct share
• 2:04:07
  Speaker 1: in the event take on themselves the least responsibility, and
• 2:04:10
  Speaker 1: vice versa. Morally, the wielder of power appears to cause
• 2:04:15
  Speaker 1: the event. Physically, it is those who submit to the power.
• 2:04:20
  Speaker 1: But as the moral activity is inconceivable without the physical,
• 2:04:23
  Speaker 1: the cause of the event is neither in the one
• 2:04:26
  Speaker 1: nor in the other, but in the union of the two.
• 2:04:28
  Speaker 1: Or in other words, the conception of a cause is
• 2:04:31
  Speaker 1: inapplicable to the phenomena we are examining. In the last analysis,
• 2:04:36
  Speaker 1: we reach the circle of infinity, that final limit to
• 2:04:40
  Speaker 1: which in every domain of thought, man's reason arrives if
• 2:04:43
  Speaker 1: it is not playing with the subject. Electricity produces heat,
• 2:04:47
  Speaker 1: heat produces electricity. Atoms attract each other, and atoms repel
• 2:04:51
  Speaker 1: one another. Speaking of the interaction of heat and electricity
• 2:04:55
  Speaker 1: and of atoms. We cannot say why this occurs, and
• 2:04:59
  Speaker 1: we say that it is so because it is inconceivable,
• 2:05:02
  Speaker 1: otherwise because it must be so, and that it is
• 2:05:06
  Speaker 1: a law. The same applies to historical events. Why war
• 2:05:11
  Speaker 1: and revolution occur we do not know. We only know
• 2:05:15
  Speaker 1: that to produce the one or the other action, people
• 2:05:17
  Speaker 1: combine in a certain formation in which they all take part.
• 2:05:21
  Speaker 1: And we say that this is so because it is unthinkable. Otherwise, why,
• 2:05:26
  Speaker 1: in other words, that it is a law? End of
• 2:05:29
  Speaker 1: Chapter seven.
• 2:05:31
  Speaker 5: If history dealt only with external phenomena, the establishment of
• 2:05:35
  Speaker 5: this simple and obvious law would suffice, and we should
• 2:05:38
  Speaker 5: have finished our argument. But the law of history relates
• 2:05:42
  Speaker 5: to man. A particle of matter cannot tell us that
• 2:05:45
  Speaker 5: it does not feel the law of attraction or repulsion,
• 2:05:48
  Speaker 5: and that that law is untrue. But man, who is
• 2:05:52
  Speaker 5: the subject of history, says plainly, I am free, and
• 2:05:55
  Speaker 5: am therefore not subject to the law. The presence of
• 2:05:59
  Speaker 5: the problem of man free will, though unexpressed, is felt
• 2:06:02
  Speaker 5: at every step of history. All seriously thinking historians have
• 2:06:07
  Speaker 5: involuntarily encountered this question, All the contradictions and obscurities of
• 2:06:12
  Speaker 5: history and the false path historical sciences followed, are due
• 2:06:16
  Speaker 5: solely to the lack of a solution to that question.
• 2:06:20
  Speaker 5: If the will of every man were free, that is,
• 2:06:22
  Speaker 5: if each man could act as he pleased, all history
• 2:06:25
  Speaker 5: would be a series of disconnected incidents. If in a
• 2:06:29
  Speaker 5: thousand years, even one man in a million could act freely,
• 2:06:33
  Speaker 5: that is, as he chose, it is evident that one
• 2:06:36
  Speaker 5: single free act of that man's, in violation of the
• 2:06:39
  Speaker 5: laws governing human action, would destroy the possibility of the
• 2:06:43
  Speaker 5: existence of any laws for the whole of humanity. If
• 2:06:47
  Speaker 5: there be a single law governing the actions of men,
• 2:06:50
  Speaker 5: free will cannot exist, for then man's will is subject
• 2:06:54
  Speaker 5: to that law. In this contradiction lies the problem of
• 2:06:58
  Speaker 5: free will, which from most ancient times has occupied the
• 2:07:02
  Speaker 5: best human minds, and from most ancient times has been
• 2:07:05
  Speaker 5: presented in its whole tremendous significance. The problem is that,
• 2:07:11
  Speaker 5: regarding man as a subject of observation from whatever point
• 2:07:14
  Speaker 5: of view theological, historical, ethical, or philosophic, we find a
• 2:07:19
  Speaker 5: general law of necessity to which he, like all that exists,
• 2:07:23
  Speaker 5: is subject, But regarding him from within ourselves as what
• 2:07:27
  Speaker 5: we are conscious of, we feel ourselves to be free.
• 2:07:31
  Speaker 5: This consciousness is a source of self cognition, quite apart
• 2:07:35
  Speaker 5: from an independent of reason. Through his reason, man observes himself,
• 2:07:40
  Speaker 5: but only through consciousness does he know himself. Apart from
• 2:07:44
  Speaker 5: consciousness of self, no observation or application of reason is conceivable.
• 2:07:50
  Speaker 5: To understand, observe, and draw conclusions, man must, first of all,
• 2:07:54
  Speaker 5: be conscious of himself as living. A man is only
• 2:07:57
  Speaker 5: conscious of himself as a living being by the fact
• 2:08:00
  Speaker 5: that he wills. That is, is conscious of his volition.
• 2:08:04
  Speaker 5: But his will, which forms the essence of his life,
• 2:08:07
  Speaker 5: man recognizes and can but recognize as free. If observing himself,
• 2:08:13
  Speaker 5: man sees that his will is always directed by one
• 2:08:16
  Speaker 5: and the same law. Whether he observes the necessity of
• 2:08:19
  Speaker 5: taking food, using his brain, or anything else, he cannot
• 2:08:24
  Speaker 5: recognize this never varying direction of his will otherwise than
• 2:08:27
  Speaker 5: as a limitation of it. Were it not free, it
• 2:08:30
  Speaker 5: could not be limited. A man's will seems to him
• 2:08:34
  Speaker 5: to be limited just because he is not conscious of it,
• 2:08:37
  Speaker 5: except as free. You say, I am not and am
• 2:08:40
  Speaker 5: not free, But I have lifted my hand and let
• 2:08:43
  Speaker 5: it fall. Everyone understands that this illogical reply is an
• 2:08:47
  Speaker 5: irrefutable demonstration of freedom. That reply is the expression of
• 2:08:52
  Speaker 5: a consciousness that is not subject to reason. If the
• 2:08:55
  Speaker 5: consciousness of freedom were not a separate and independent source
• 2:08:59
  Speaker 5: of self consciousness, it would be subject to reasoning and
• 2:09:02
  Speaker 5: to experience. But in fact such subjection does not exist
• 2:09:06
  Speaker 5: and is inconceivable. A series of experiments and arguments proves
• 2:09:11
  Speaker 5: to every man that he, as an object of observation,
• 2:09:14
  Speaker 5: is subject to certain laws, and man submits to them
• 2:09:17
  Speaker 5: and never resists the laws of gravity or impermeability once
• 2:09:21
  Speaker 5: he has become acquainted with them. But the same series
• 2:09:24
  Speaker 5: of experiments and arguments proves to him that the complete
• 2:09:27
  Speaker 5: freedom of which he is conscious in himself is impossible,
• 2:09:31
  Speaker 5: and that as every action depends on his organization, his character,
• 2:09:35
  Speaker 5: and the motives acting upon him. Yet man never submits
• 2:09:39
  Speaker 5: to the deductions of these experiments and arguments. Having learned
• 2:09:43
  Speaker 5: from experiment in argument that a stone falls downwards, A
• 2:09:46
  Speaker 5: man indubitably believes this, and always expects the law that
• 2:09:49
  Speaker 5: he has learned to be fulfilled. But learning just as
• 2:09:53
  Speaker 5: certainly that his will is subject to laws, he does
• 2:09:56
  Speaker 5: not and cannot believe this. However, often experiment and reasoning
• 2:10:01
  Speaker 5: may show a man that under the same conditions and
• 2:10:04
  Speaker 5: with the same character, he will do the same thing
• 2:10:06
  Speaker 5: as before. Yet, when under the same conditions and with
• 2:10:10
  Speaker 5: the same character, he approaches for the thousandth time the
• 2:10:13
  Speaker 5: action that always ends in the same way, he feels
• 2:10:17
  Speaker 5: as certainly convinced as before the experiment that he can
• 2:10:20
  Speaker 5: act as he pleases. Every man, savage or sage, however,
• 2:10:25
  Speaker 5: incontestably reason and experiment, may prove to him that it
• 2:10:28
  Speaker 5: is impossible to imagine two different courses of action in
• 2:10:31
  Speaker 5: precisely the same conditions, feels that without this irrational conception,
• 2:10:36
  Speaker 5: which constitutes the essence of freedom, he cannot imagine life.
• 2:10:40
  Speaker 5: He feels that, however impossible it may be, it is so,
• 2:10:44
  Speaker 5: for without this conception of freedom, not only would he
• 2:10:47
  Speaker 5: be unable to understand life, but he would be unable
• 2:10:50
  Speaker 5: to live. For a single moment, he could not live,
• 2:10:53
  Speaker 5: because all man's efforts, and all his impulses to life,
• 2:10:56
  Speaker 5: are only efforts to increase freedom, wealth and powver, fame
• 2:11:00
  Speaker 5: and obscurity, power and subordination, strength and weakness, health and disease,
• 2:11:06
  Speaker 5: culture and ignorance, work and leisure, repletion and hunger, virtue
• 2:11:10
  Speaker 5: and vice, are only greater or lesser degrees of freedom.
• 2:11:15
  Speaker 5: A man having no freedom cannot be conceived of except
• 2:11:18
  Speaker 5: as deprived of life. If the conception of freedom appears
• 2:11:23
  Speaker 5: to reason to be a senseless contradiction, like the possibility
• 2:11:27
  Speaker 5: of performing two actions at one in the same instant
• 2:11:29
  Speaker 5: of time, or of an effect without a cause, that
• 2:11:33
  Speaker 5: only proves that consciousness is not subject to reason. This unshakable,
• 2:11:39
  Speaker 5: irrefutable consciousness of freedom, uncontrolled by experiment or argument, recognized
• 2:11:45
  Speaker 5: by all thinkers, and felt by everyone without exception, This consciousness,
• 2:11:50
  Speaker 5: without which no conception of man is possible, constitutes the
• 2:11:53
  Speaker 5: other side of the question. Man is the creation of
• 2:11:57
  Speaker 5: an all powerful, all good, and all seeing God. What
• 2:12:01
  Speaker 5: is sin, the conception of which arises from the consciousness
• 2:12:05
  Speaker 5: of man's freedom. That is a question for theology. The
• 2:12:09
  Speaker 5: actions of men are subject to general, immutable laws expressed
• 2:12:13
  Speaker 5: in statistics. What is man's responsibility to society, the conception
• 2:12:17
  Speaker 5: of which results from the conception of freedom? That is
• 2:12:20
  Speaker 5: a question for jurisprudence. Man's actions proceed from his innate
• 2:12:26
  Speaker 5: character and the motives acting upon him. What is conscience
• 2:12:30
  Speaker 5: and the perception of right and wrong in actions? That
• 2:12:33
  Speaker 5: follows from the consciousness of freedom. That is a question
• 2:12:37
  Speaker 5: for ethics. Man in connection with the general life of
• 2:12:41
  Speaker 5: humanity appears subject to laws which determine that life, But
• 2:12:45
  Speaker 5: the same man, apart from that connection, appears to be free.
• 2:12:49
  Speaker 5: How should the past life of nations and of humanity
• 2:12:53
  Speaker 5: be regarded as the result of the free or as
• 2:12:56
  Speaker 5: the result of the constrained activity of man? That is
• 2:13:00
  Speaker 5: a question for history. Only in our self confident day
• 2:13:04
  Speaker 5: of the popularization of knowledge, thanks to that most powerful
• 2:13:08
  Speaker 5: engine of ignorance, the diffusion of printed matter, has the
• 2:13:11
  Speaker 5: question of the freedom of will been put on a
• 2:13:14
  Speaker 5: level on which the question itself cannot exist. In our time,
• 2:13:19
  Speaker 5: the majority of so called advanced people, that is, the
• 2:13:22
  Speaker 5: crowd of ignoramuses, have taken the work of the naturalists,
• 2:13:26
  Speaker 5: who deal with one side of the question for a
• 2:13:28
  Speaker 5: solution of the whole problem. They say and write in print,
• 2:13:32
  Speaker 5: that the soul and freedom do not exist, for the
• 2:13:34
  Speaker 5: life of man is expressed by muscular movements, and muscular
• 2:13:37
  Speaker 5: movements are conditioned by the activity of the nerves. The
• 2:13:41
  Speaker 5: soul and free will do not exist, because, at an
• 2:13:44
  Speaker 5: unknown period of time we sprang from the apes. They
• 2:13:48
  Speaker 5: say this not at all, suspecting that thousands of years
• 2:13:51
  Speaker 5: ago that same law of necessity, which with such ardor
• 2:13:55
  Speaker 5: they are now trying to prove by physiology and comparative zoology,
• 2:13:59
  Speaker 5: was not merely acknowledged by all the religions and all
• 2:14:02
  Speaker 5: the thinkers, but has never been denied. They do not
• 2:14:06
  Speaker 5: see that the role of the natural sciences in this
• 2:14:08
  Speaker 5: matter is merely to serve as an instrument for the
• 2:14:11
  Speaker 5: illumination of one side of it. For the fact that
• 2:14:14
  Speaker 5: from the point of view of observation, reason and the
• 2:14:17
  Speaker 5: will are merely secretions of the brain, and that man,
• 2:14:20
  Speaker 5: following the general law, may have developed from lower animals
• 2:14:23
  Speaker 5: at some unknown period of time, only explains from a
• 2:14:27
  Speaker 5: fresh side the truth admitted thousands of years ago by
• 2:14:30
  Speaker 5: all the religious and philosophic theories, that from the point
• 2:14:34
  Speaker 5: of view of reason, man is subject to the law
• 2:14:36
  Speaker 5: of necessity. But it does not advance by a hair's
• 2:14:39
  Speaker 5: breadth the solution of the question, which has another opposite side,
• 2:14:43
  Speaker 5: based on the consciousness of freedom. If men descended from
• 2:14:48
  Speaker 5: the apes at an unknown period of time, that is
• 2:14:51
  Speaker 5: as comprehensible as that they were made from a handful
• 2:14:53
  Speaker 5: of earth at a certain period of time. In the
• 2:14:56
  Speaker 5: first case, the unknown quantity is the time. In the
• 2:14:59
  Speaker 5: second case it is the o origin. And the question
• 2:15:02
  Speaker 5: of how man's consciousness of freedom is to be reconciled
• 2:15:05
  Speaker 5: with the law of necessity to which he is subject
• 2:15:07
  Speaker 5: cannot be solved by comparative physiology and zoology. For in
• 2:15:12
  Speaker 5: a frog, a rabbit, or an ape, we can observe
• 2:15:14
  Speaker 5: only the muscular nervous activity, but in man we observe
• 2:15:19
  Speaker 5: consciousness as well as the muscular and nervous activity. The
• 2:15:23
  Speaker 5: naturalists and their followers, thinking they can solve this question,
• 2:15:27
  Speaker 5: are like plasterers set to plaster one side of the
• 2:15:30
  Speaker 5: walls of a church, who, availing themselves of the absence
• 2:15:33
  Speaker 5: of the chief superintendent of the work, should in an
• 2:15:36
  Speaker 5: access of zeal plaster over the windows, icons woodwork, and
• 2:15:40
  Speaker 5: still unbuttressed walls, and should be delighted that, from their
• 2:15:44
  Speaker 5: point of view as plasterers, everything is now so smooth
• 2:15:47
  Speaker 5: and regular end of Chapter eight.
• 2:15:51
  Speaker 1: For the solution of the question of free will or inevitability,
• 2:15:56
  Speaker 1: history has this advantage over other branches of knowledge in
• 2:15:59
  Speaker 1: which the question is dealt with, that for history, this
• 2:16:03
  Speaker 1: question does not refer to the essence of man's free will,
• 2:16:06
  Speaker 1: but its manifestation in the past and under certain conditions.
• 2:16:11
  Speaker 1: In regard to this question, history stands to the other
• 2:16:14
  Speaker 1: sciences as experimental science stands to abstract science. The subject
• 2:16:19
  Speaker 1: for history is not a man's will itself, but our
• 2:16:22
  Speaker 1: presentation of it. And so for history, the insoluble mystery
• 2:16:27
  Speaker 1: presented by the incompatibility of free will and inevitability does
• 2:16:31
  Speaker 1: not exist. As it does for theology, ethics, and philosophy.
• 2:16:35
  Speaker 1: History surveys a presentation of man's life in which the
• 2:16:38
  Speaker 1: union of these two contradictions has already taken place. In
• 2:16:43
  Speaker 1: actual life, each historic event, each human action, is very
• 2:16:47
  Speaker 1: clearly and definitely understood without any sense of contradiction, although
• 2:16:51
  Speaker 1: each event presents itself as partly free and partly compulsory.
• 2:16:56
  Speaker 1: To solve the question of how freedom and necessity are
• 2:16:58
  Speaker 1: combined and what constitutes the essence of these two conceptions,
• 2:17:02
  Speaker 1: the philosophy of history can and should follow a path
• 2:17:06
  Speaker 1: contrary to that taken by other sciences. Instead of first
• 2:17:10
  Speaker 1: defining the conceptions of freedom and inevitability in themselves and
• 2:17:14
  Speaker 1: then ranging the phenomena of life under these definitions, history
• 2:17:18
  Speaker 1: should deduce a definition of the conception of freedom and
• 2:17:21
  Speaker 1: inevitability themselves from the immense quantity of phenomena of which
• 2:17:25
  Speaker 1: it is cognizant, and that always appear dependent on these
• 2:17:28
  Speaker 1: two elements. Whatever presentation of the activity of many men
• 2:17:33
  Speaker 1: or of an individual we may consider, we always regard
• 2:17:36
  Speaker 1: it as the result partly of man's free will and
• 2:17:39
  Speaker 1: partly of the law of inevitability. Whether we speak of
• 2:17:43
  Speaker 1: the migration of the peoples and the incursions of the barbarians,
• 2:17:46
  Speaker 1: or of the decrees of Napoleon the Third, or of
• 2:17:49
  Speaker 1: someone's action an hour ago in choosing one direction out
• 2:17:52
  Speaker 1: of several for his walk, we are unconscious of any contradiction.
• 2:17:57
  Speaker 1: The degree of freedom and inevitability governing the actions of
• 2:18:00
  Speaker 1: these people is clearly defined for us. Our conception of
• 2:18:04
  Speaker 1: the degree of freedom often varies according to differences in
• 2:18:07
  Speaker 1: the point of view from which we regard the event,
• 2:18:09
  Speaker 1: But every human action appears to us as a certain
• 2:18:13
  Speaker 1: combination of freedom and inevitability. In every action we examine,
• 2:18:18
  Speaker 1: we see a certain measure of freedom and a certain
• 2:18:21
  Speaker 1: measure of inevitability. And always the more freedom we see
• 2:18:25
  Speaker 1: in any action, the less inevitability do we perceive, and
• 2:18:29
  Speaker 1: the more inevitability the less freedom. The proportion of freedom
• 2:18:33
  Speaker 1: to inevitability decreases and increases according to the point of
• 2:18:36
  Speaker 1: view from which the action is regarded, but their relation
• 2:18:40
  Speaker 1: is always one of inverse proportion. A sinking man who
• 2:18:45
  Speaker 1: clutches at another and drowns him, or a hungry mother
• 2:18:48
  Speaker 1: exhausted by feeding her baby who steals some food, or
• 2:18:52
  Speaker 1: a man trained to discipline who won duty at the
• 2:18:54
  Speaker 1: word of command kills a defenseless man seem less guilty,
• 2:18:59
  Speaker 1: that is, less free and more subject to the law
• 2:19:02
  Speaker 1: of necessity to one who knows the circumstances in which
• 2:19:05
  Speaker 1: these people were placed, and more free to one who
• 2:19:08
  Speaker 1: does not know that the man was in self drowning,
• 2:19:11
  Speaker 1: that the mother was hungry, that the soldier was in
• 2:19:13
  Speaker 1: the ranks, and so on. Similarly, a man who committed
• 2:19:17
  Speaker 1: a murder twenty years ago and has since lived peaceably
• 2:19:21
  Speaker 1: and harmlessly in society seems less guilty and his action
• 2:19:25
  Speaker 1: more due to the law of inevitability to someone who
• 2:19:27
  Speaker 1: considers his action after twenty years of elapse than to
• 2:19:31
  Speaker 1: one who examined it the day after it was committed.
• 2:19:34
  Speaker 1: And in the same way, every action of an insane
• 2:19:37
  Speaker 1: intoxicated or highly excited man appears less free and more
• 2:19:40
  Speaker 1: inevitable to one who knows the mental condition of him
• 2:19:43
  Speaker 1: who committed the action, and seems more free and less
• 2:19:46
  Speaker 1: inevitable to one who does not know it. In all
• 2:19:50
  Speaker 1: these cases, the conception of freedom is increased or diminished,
• 2:19:54
  Speaker 1: and the conception of compulsion is correspondingly decreased or increased,
• 2:19:58
  Speaker 1: according to the point of d view from which the
• 2:20:00
  Speaker 1: action is regarded, so that the greater the conception of necessity,
• 2:20:06
  Speaker 1: the smaller the conception of freedom, and vice versa. Religion,
• 2:20:10
  Speaker 1: the common sense of mankind, the science of jurisprudence, and
• 2:20:14
  Speaker 1: history itself understand the like this relation between necessity and freedom.
• 2:20:20
  Speaker 1: All cases, without exception, in which our conception of freedom
• 2:20:23
  Speaker 1: and necessity is increased and diminished depend on three considerations.
• 2:20:28
  Speaker 1: Number one, the relation to the external world of the
• 2:20:32
  Speaker 1: man who commits the deeds. Number two, his relation to time.
• 2:20:36
  Speaker 1: Number three his relation to the causes leading to the action.
• 2:20:41
  Speaker 1: The first consideration is the clearness of our perception of
• 2:20:45
  Speaker 1: the man's relation to the external world, and the greater
• 2:20:48
  Speaker 1: or lesser clearness of our understanding of the definite position
• 2:20:51
  Speaker 1: occupied by the man in relation to everything coexisting with him.
• 2:20:56
  Speaker 1: This is what makes it evident that a drowning man
• 2:20:59
  Speaker 1: is less free and more subject to necessity than one
• 2:21:02
  Speaker 1: standing on dry ground. And that makes the action of
• 2:21:05
  Speaker 1: a man closely connected with others in a thickly populated district,
• 2:21:09
  Speaker 1: or of one bound by family, official, or business duties,
• 2:21:12
  Speaker 1: seems certainly less free and more subject to necessity than
• 2:21:16
  Speaker 1: those of a man living in solitude and seclusion. If
• 2:21:20
  Speaker 1: we consider a man alone, apart from his relation to
• 2:21:23
  Speaker 1: everything around him, each action of his seems to us free.
• 2:21:28
  Speaker 1: But if we see his relation to anything around him,
• 2:21:31
  Speaker 1: if we see his connection with anything whatever, with a
• 2:21:34
  Speaker 1: man who speaks to him, a book he reads, the
• 2:21:37
  Speaker 1: work on which he is engaged, even with the air
• 2:21:40
  Speaker 1: he breathes, or the light that falls on the things
• 2:21:42
  Speaker 1: about him, we see that each of these circumstances has
• 2:21:45
  Speaker 1: an influence on him and controls at least some side
• 2:21:49
  Speaker 1: of his activity. And the more we perceive of these influences,
• 2:21:53
  Speaker 1: the more our conception of his freedom diminishes, and the
• 2:21:57
  Speaker 1: more our conception of the necessity that weighs on him increases.
• 2:22:01
  Speaker 1: The second consideration is the more or less evident time
• 2:22:04
  Speaker 1: relation of the man to the world, and the clearness
• 2:22:07
  Speaker 1: of our perception of the place the man's action occupies
• 2:22:09
  Speaker 1: in time. That is the ground which makes the fall
• 2:22:13
  Speaker 1: of the first man, resulting in the production of the
• 2:22:15
  Speaker 1: human race, appear evidently less free than a man's entry
• 2:22:19
  Speaker 1: into marriage today. It is no reason why the life
• 2:22:22
  Speaker 1: and activity of people who live centuries ago and are
• 2:22:26
  Speaker 1: connected with me in time cannot seem to me as
• 2:22:29
  Speaker 1: free as the life of a contemporary, the consequences of
• 2:22:32
  Speaker 1: which are still unknown to me. The degree of our
• 2:22:35
  Speaker 1: conception of freedom or inevitability depends in this respect on
• 2:22:39
  Speaker 1: the greater or lesser lapse of time between the performance
• 2:22:42
  Speaker 1: of the action and our judgment of it. If I
• 2:22:46
  Speaker 1: examine an act I performed a moment ago in approximately
• 2:22:49
  Speaker 1: the same circumstances as those I am in now, my
• 2:22:52
  Speaker 1: action appears to me undoubtedly free. But if I examine
• 2:22:56
  Speaker 1: an act performed a month ago, then, being in different circumstance,
• 2:23:00
  Speaker 1: says I cannot help recognizing that if that act had
• 2:23:03
  Speaker 1: not been committed, much that resulted from it, good, agreeable,
• 2:23:07
  Speaker 1: and even essential, would not have taken place. If I
• 2:23:11
  Speaker 1: reflect on an action still more remote ten years ago
• 2:23:14
  Speaker 1: or more, then the consequences of my action are still
• 2:23:17
  Speaker 1: plainer to me, and I find it hard to imagine
• 2:23:21
  Speaker 1: what would have happened had that action not been performed.
• 2:23:25
  Speaker 1: The farther I go back in memory, or what is
• 2:23:27
  Speaker 1: the same thing the father I go forward in my judgment,
• 2:23:30
  Speaker 1: the more doubtful becomes my belief in the freedom of
• 2:23:33
  Speaker 1: my action. In history, we find a very similar progress
• 2:23:37
  Speaker 1: of conviction concerning the part played by free will in
• 2:23:41
  Speaker 1: the general affairs of humanity. A contemporary event seems to
• 2:23:45
  Speaker 1: us to be indubitably the doing of all the known participants.
• 2:23:49
  Speaker 1: But with the more remote event, we already see its
• 2:23:52
  Speaker 1: inevitable results, which prevent our considering anything else possible. And
• 2:23:57
  Speaker 1: the farther we go back in examining events, the less
• 2:24:00
  Speaker 1: arbitrary do they appear. The Austro Prussian War appears to
• 2:24:04
  Speaker 1: us undoubtedly the result of the crafty conduct of Bismarck
• 2:24:08
  Speaker 1: and so on. The Napoleonic Wars still seem to us,
• 2:24:12
  Speaker 1: though already questionably, to be the outcome of their hero's will.
• 2:24:16
  Speaker 1: But in the Crusades we already see an event occupying
• 2:24:20
  Speaker 1: its deafenite place in history, and without which we cannot
• 2:24:23
  Speaker 1: imagine the modern history of Europe, though to the chroniclers
• 2:24:26
  Speaker 1: of the Crusades that event appeared as merely due to
• 2:24:30
  Speaker 1: the will of certain people in regard to the migration
• 2:24:33
  Speaker 1: of the peoples, it does not enter anyone's head today
• 2:24:36
  Speaker 1: to suppose that the renovation of the European will depended
• 2:24:40
  Speaker 1: on at Tilla's caprice. The farther back in history the
• 2:24:43
  Speaker 1: object of our observation lies, the more doubtful does the
• 2:24:47
  Speaker 1: free will of those concerned in the event become, and
• 2:24:49
  Speaker 1: the more manifest the law of inevitability. The third consideration
• 2:24:54
  Speaker 1: is the degree to which we apprehend that endless chain
• 2:24:57
  Speaker 1: of causation inevitably demanded by reason, in which each phenomenon comprehended,
• 2:25:03
  Speaker 1: and therefore man's every action must have its deafener place
• 2:25:06
  Speaker 1: as a result of what has gone before and as
• 2:25:09
  Speaker 1: a cause of what will follow. The better we are
• 2:25:11
  Speaker 1: acquainted with the physiological, psychological, and historical laws deduced by
• 2:25:16
  Speaker 1: observation and by which man is controlled, and the more
• 2:25:19
  Speaker 1: correctly we perceive the physiological, psychological, and historical causes of
• 2:25:23
  Speaker 1: the action, and the simpler the action we are observing,
• 2:25:26
  Speaker 1: and the less complex the character and mind of the
• 2:25:28
  Speaker 1: man in question, the more subject to inevitability and the
• 2:25:32
  Speaker 1: less free do our actions and aos of others appear.
• 2:25:35
  Speaker 1: When we do not at all understand the cause of
• 2:25:37
  Speaker 1: an action, whether a crime, a good action, or even
• 2:25:40
  Speaker 1: one that is simply non moral, we ascribe a greater
• 2:25:43
  Speaker 1: amount of freedom to it. In the case of a crime,
• 2:25:47
  Speaker 1: we most urgently demand the punishment for such an act.
• 2:25:50
  Speaker 1: In the case of a virtuous act, we rate its
• 2:25:52
  Speaker 1: merit most highly. In an indifferent case, we recognize in
• 2:25:57
  Speaker 1: it more individuality, originality, and independence. But if even one
• 2:26:03
  Speaker 1: of the innumerable causes of the act is known to us,
• 2:26:06
  Speaker 1: we recognize a certain element of necessity and a less
• 2:26:09
  Speaker 1: insistent on punishment for the crime, or the acknowledgment of
• 2:26:12
  Speaker 1: the merit of the virtuous act, or the freedom of
• 2:26:14
  Speaker 1: the apparently original action. That a criminal was reared among
• 2:26:19
  Speaker 1: male factors mitigates his fault. In our eyes, the self
• 2:26:23
  Speaker 1: sacrifice of a father or mother, or self sacrifice with
• 2:26:26
  Speaker 1: the possibility of a reward, is more comprehensible than gratuitous
• 2:26:30
  Speaker 1: self sacrifice, and therefore seems less deserving of sympathy and
• 2:26:34
  Speaker 1: less the result of free will. The founder of a
• 2:26:37
  Speaker 1: sect or party, or an inventor impresses us less when
• 2:26:41
  Speaker 1: we know how or by what the way was prepared
• 2:26:44
  Speaker 1: for his activity. If we have a large range of examples,
• 2:26:48
  Speaker 1: If our observation is constantly directed to seeking the correlation
• 2:26:51
  Speaker 1: of cause and effect in people's actions, their actions appear
• 2:26:55
  Speaker 1: to us more under compulsion and less free, the more
• 2:26:58
  Speaker 1: correctly we connect the events with other causes. If we
• 2:27:02
  Speaker 1: examine simple actions and had a vast number of such
• 2:27:05
  Speaker 1: actions under observation, our conception of their inevitability would be
• 2:27:09
  Speaker 1: still greater. The dishonest conduct of the son of a
• 2:27:13
  Speaker 1: dishonest father, the misconduct of a woman who had fallen
• 2:27:16
  Speaker 1: into bad company, a drunkard's relapse into drunkenness, and so
• 2:27:20
  Speaker 1: on are actions that seem to us less free the
• 2:27:23
  Speaker 1: better we understand their cause. If the man whose actions
• 2:27:27
  Speaker 1: we are considering is on a very low stage of
• 2:27:29
  Speaker 1: mental development, like a child, a madman, or a simpleton, then,
• 2:27:33
  Speaker 1: knowing the causes of the act and the simplicity of
• 2:27:36
  Speaker 1: the character and intelligence in question, we see so large
• 2:27:40
  Speaker 1: an element of necessity and so little free will, that
• 2:27:43
  Speaker 1: as soon as we know the cause prompting the action,
• 2:27:45
  Speaker 1: we can foretell the result. On these three considerations alone
• 2:27:50
  Speaker 1: is base the conception of irresponsibility for crimes and the
• 2:27:54
  Speaker 1: extenuating circumstances admitted by all legislative codes. The responsibility appear
• 2:28:00
  Speaker 1: is greater or less according to our greater or lesser
• 2:28:03
  Speaker 1: knowledge of the circumstances in which the man was placed
• 2:28:05
  Speaker 1: whose action is being judged, and according to the greater
• 2:28:09
  Speaker 1: or lesser interval of time between the commission of the
• 2:28:11
  Speaker 1: action and its investigation, and according to the greater or
• 2:28:15
  Speaker 1: lesser understanding of the causes that led to the action.
• 2:28:19
  Speaker 1: End of Chapter nine.
• 2:28:21
  Speaker 5: Thus our conception of free will and inevitability gradually diminishes
• 2:28:26
  Speaker 5: or increases according to the greater or lesser connection with
• 2:28:29
  Speaker 5: the external world, the greater or lesser remoteness of time,
• 2:28:34
  Speaker 5: and the greater or lesser dependence on the causes in
• 2:28:37
  Speaker 5: relation to which we contemplate a man's life. So that
• 2:28:41
  Speaker 5: if we examine the case of a man whose connection
• 2:28:43
  Speaker 5: with the external world is well known, where the time
• 2:28:46
  Speaker 5: between the action and its examination is great, and where
• 2:28:50
  Speaker 5: the causes of the action are most accessible, we get
• 2:28:52
  Speaker 5: the conception of a maximum of inevitability and a minimum
• 2:28:56
  Speaker 5: of free will. If we examine a man little dependent
• 2:29:00
  Speaker 5: on external conditions, whose action was performed very recently, and
• 2:29:05
  Speaker 5: the causes of whose actions are beyond our Can we
• 2:29:08
  Speaker 5: get the conception of a minimum of inevitability and a
• 2:29:11
  Speaker 5: maximum of freedom in neither case, however, we may change
• 2:29:16
  Speaker 5: our point of view. However plain we may make to
• 2:29:19
  Speaker 5: ourselves the connection between the man and the external world,
• 2:29:22
  Speaker 5: however inaccessible it may be to us, however long or
• 2:29:26
  Speaker 5: short the period of time, however intelligible or incomprehensible, the
• 2:29:30
  Speaker 5: causes of the action may be. Can we ever conceive
• 2:29:34
  Speaker 5: either complete freedom or complete necessity one To whatever degree
• 2:29:40
  Speaker 5: we may imagine a man to be exempt from the
• 2:29:42
  Speaker 5: influence of the external world, we never get a conception
• 2:29:45
  Speaker 5: of freedom. In space. Every human action is inevitably conditioned
• 2:29:50
  Speaker 5: by what surrounds him and by his own body. I
• 2:29:53
  Speaker 5: lift my arm and let it fall. My action seems
• 2:29:56
  Speaker 5: to me to be free. But asking myself whether I
• 2:29:59
  Speaker 5: could raise my earn in every direction, I see that
• 2:30:01
  Speaker 5: I raised it in the direction in which there was
• 2:30:03
  Speaker 5: the least obstruction to that action, either from things around
• 2:30:07
  Speaker 5: me or from the construction of my own body. I
• 2:30:10
  Speaker 5: chose one out of all the possible directions, because in
• 2:30:13
  Speaker 5: it there were fewest obstacles for my action to be free.
• 2:30:17
  Speaker 5: It was necessary that it should encounter no obstacles. To
• 2:30:20
  Speaker 5: conceive of a man being free, we must imagine him
• 2:30:23
  Speaker 5: outside space, which is evidently impossible. Two, However much we
• 2:30:29
  Speaker 5: approximate the time of judgment to the time of the deed,
• 2:30:32
  Speaker 5: we never get a conception of freedom in time. For
• 2:30:36
  Speaker 5: if I examine an action committed a second ago, I
• 2:30:38
  Speaker 5: must still recognize it as not being free, for it
• 2:30:41
  Speaker 5: is irrevocably linked to the moment at which it was committed.
• 2:30:45
  Speaker 5: Can I lift my arm? I lift it, but ask myself,
• 2:30:48
  Speaker 5: could I have abstained from lifting my arm at the
• 2:30:51
  Speaker 5: moment that has already passed. To convince myself of this,
• 2:30:55
  Speaker 5: I do not lift it the next moment, But I
• 2:30:57
  Speaker 5: am now not abstaining from doing so at the first
• 2:31:00
  Speaker 5: moment when I asked the question, time has gone by
• 2:31:03
  Speaker 5: which I could not detain. The arm I then lifted
• 2:31:06
  Speaker 5: is no longer the same as the arm I now
• 2:31:08
  Speaker 5: refrain from lifting, Nor is the air in which I
• 2:31:11
  Speaker 5: lifted it the same that now surrounds me. The moment
• 2:31:14
  Speaker 5: in which the first movement was made is irrevocable, and
• 2:31:17
  Speaker 5: at that moment I could make only one movement, and
• 2:31:20
  Speaker 5: whatever movement I made would be the only one. That
• 2:31:24
  Speaker 5: I did not lift my arm a moment later does
• 2:31:26
  Speaker 5: not prove that I could have abstained from lifting it then,
• 2:31:29
  Speaker 5: And since I could make only one movement at that
• 2:31:32
  Speaker 5: single moment of time, it could not have been any other.
• 2:31:35
  Speaker 5: To imagine it is free, it is necessary to imagine
• 2:31:38
  Speaker 5: it in the present, on the boundary between the past
• 2:31:41
  Speaker 5: and the future, that is, outside time, which is impossible. Three.
• 2:31:48
  Speaker 5: However much the difficulty of understanding the causes may be increased,
• 2:31:52
  Speaker 5: we never reach a conception of complete freedom. That is,
• 2:31:55
  Speaker 5: an absence of cause, however inaccessible to us, may be
• 2:31:59
  Speaker 5: the cause of the ex rush of will in any action,
• 2:32:01
  Speaker 5: our own or in others. The first demand of reason
• 2:32:05
  Speaker 5: is the assumption of and search for a cause, For
• 2:32:08
  Speaker 5: without a cause, no phenomenon is conceivable. I raise my
• 2:32:12
  Speaker 5: arm to perform an action independently of any cause, But
• 2:32:15
  Speaker 5: my wish to perform an action without a cause is
• 2:32:17
  Speaker 5: the cause of my action. But even if imagining a
• 2:32:21
  Speaker 5: man quite exempt from all influences, examining only his momentary
• 2:32:25
  Speaker 5: action in the present unevoked by any cause, we were
• 2:32:29
  Speaker 5: to admit so infinitely small a remainder of inevitability as
• 2:32:32
  Speaker 5: equaled zero. We should even then not have arrived at
• 2:32:36
  Speaker 5: the conception of complete freedom in man, For a being
• 2:32:39
  Speaker 5: uninfluenced by the external world, standing outside of time and
• 2:32:43
  Speaker 5: independent of cause, is no longer a man. In the
• 2:32:47
  Speaker 5: same way, we can never imagine the action of a
• 2:32:49
  Speaker 5: man quite devoid of freedom and entirely subject to the
• 2:32:53
  Speaker 5: law of inevitability. One, However, we may increase our knowledge
• 2:32:58
  Speaker 5: of the conditions of space in which man is situated.
• 2:33:00
  Speaker 5: That knowledge can never be complete, for the number of
• 2:33:03
  Speaker 5: those conditions is as infinite as the infinity of space,
• 2:33:07
  Speaker 5: and therefore, so long as not all the conditions influencing
• 2:33:11
  Speaker 5: men are defined, there is no complete inevitability, but a
• 2:33:14
  Speaker 5: certain measure of freedom remains. Two. However, we may prolong
• 2:33:20
  Speaker 5: the period of time between the action we are examining
• 2:33:23
  Speaker 5: and the judgment upon it. That period will be finite,
• 2:33:26
  Speaker 5: while time is infinite, and so in this respect too,
• 2:33:29
  Speaker 5: there can never be absolute inevitability. Three, However, accessible may
• 2:33:35
  Speaker 5: be the chain of causation of any action, we shall
• 2:33:38
  Speaker 5: never know the whole chain, since it is endless, and
• 2:33:41
  Speaker 5: so again we may never reach absolute inevitability. But besides this,
• 2:33:47
  Speaker 5: even if admitting the remaining minimum of freedom to equal zero,
• 2:33:50
  Speaker 5: we assumed in some given case, as for instance, in
• 2:33:53
  Speaker 5: that of a dying man, an unborn babe, or an idiot,
• 2:33:56
  Speaker 5: complete absence of freedom. By doing so, we should destroy
• 2:34:00
  Speaker 5: the very conception of man in the case we are examining.
• 2:34:04
  Speaker 5: For as soon as there is no freedom, there is
• 2:34:06
  Speaker 5: also no man. And so the conception of the action
• 2:34:09
  Speaker 5: of a man subject solely to the law of inevitability
• 2:34:12
  Speaker 5: without any element of freedom is just as impossible as
• 2:34:15
  Speaker 5: the conception of a man's completely free action. And so
• 2:34:20
  Speaker 5: to imagine the action of a man entirely subject to
• 2:34:22
  Speaker 5: the law of inevitability without any freedom, we must assume
• 2:34:26
  Speaker 5: the knowledge of an infinite number of space relations, an
• 2:34:29
  Speaker 5: infinitely long period of time, and an infinite series of causes.
• 2:34:34
  Speaker 5: To imagine a man perfectly free and not subject to
• 2:34:37
  Speaker 5: the law of inevitability, we must imagine him all alone,
• 2:34:40
  Speaker 5: beyond space, beyond time, and free from dependence on cause.
• 2:34:45
  Speaker 5: In the first case, if inevitability were possible without freedom,
• 2:34:49
  Speaker 5: we should have reached a definition of inevitability by the
• 2:34:51
  Speaker 5: laws of inevitability itself, that is, a mere form without
• 2:34:55
  Speaker 5: content In the second case, if freedom were possible without inevitability,
• 2:35:01
  Speaker 5: we should have arrived at unconditioned freedom beyond space, time
• 2:35:04
  Speaker 5: and cause, which by the fact of its being unconditioned
• 2:35:07
  Speaker 5: and unlimited, would be nothing or mere content without form.
• 2:35:13
  Speaker 5: We should in fact have reached those two fundamentals of
• 2:35:15
  Speaker 5: which man's whole outlook on the universe is constructed, the
• 2:35:19
  Speaker 5: incomprehensible essence of life and the laws defining that essence.
• 2:35:25
  Speaker 5: Reason says one, space, with all the forms of matter
• 2:35:29
  Speaker 5: that give it visibility, is infinite and cannot be imagined otherwise. Two,
• 2:35:35
  Speaker 5: time is infinite motion without a moment of rest, and
• 2:35:37
  Speaker 5: is unthinkable otherwise. Three, the connection between cause and effect
• 2:35:42
  Speaker 5: has no beginning and can have no end. Consciousness says one,
• 2:35:48
  Speaker 5: I alone am, and all that exists is but me. Consequently,
• 2:35:53
  Speaker 5: I include space. Two I measure flowing time by the
• 2:35:58
  Speaker 5: fixed moment of the present, in which alone I am
• 2:36:01
  Speaker 5: conscious of myself as living. Consequently, I am outside time.
• 2:36:06
  Speaker 5: Three I am beyond cause, for I feel myself to
• 2:36:10
  Speaker 5: be the cause of every manifestation of my life. Reason
• 2:36:14
  Speaker 5: gives expression to the laws of inevitability. Consciousness gives expression
• 2:36:19
  Speaker 5: to the essence of freedom, freedom, not limited by anything,
• 2:36:23
  Speaker 5: is the essence of life in man's consciousness. Inevitability without
• 2:36:27
  Speaker 5: content is man's reason. In its three forms, freedom is
• 2:36:32
  Speaker 5: the thing examined. Inevitability is what examines. Freedom is the content,
• 2:36:37
  Speaker 5: inevitability is the form. Only by separating the two sources
• 2:36:42
  Speaker 5: of cognition related to one another as form to content
• 2:36:45
  Speaker 5: do we get the mutually exclusive and separately incomprehensible conceptions
• 2:36:50
  Speaker 5: of freedom and inevitability. Only by uniting them do we
• 2:36:55
  Speaker 5: get a clear conception of man's life. Apart from these
• 2:36:59
  Speaker 5: two concepts, which, in their union mutually define one another
• 2:37:02
  Speaker 5: as form and content, no conception of life is possible.
• 2:37:07
  Speaker 5: All that we know of the life of man is
• 2:37:09
  Speaker 5: merely a certain relation of free will to inevitability, that is,
• 2:37:13
  Speaker 5: of consciousness to the laws of reason. All that we
• 2:37:17
  Speaker 5: know of the external world of nature is only a
• 2:37:20
  Speaker 5: certain relation of the forces of nature to inevitability, or
• 2:37:23
  Speaker 5: of the essence of life to the laws of reason.
• 2:37:27
  Speaker 5: The great natural forces lie outside us, and we are
• 2:37:30
  Speaker 5: not conscious of them. We call those forces gravitation, inertia, electricity,
• 2:37:35
  Speaker 5: animal force, and so on. But we are conscious of
• 2:37:38
  Speaker 5: the force of life in man, and we call that freedom.
• 2:37:42
  Speaker 5: But just as the force of gravitation, incomprehensible in itself
• 2:37:45
  Speaker 5: but felt by every man, is understood by us only
• 2:37:48
  Speaker 5: to the extent to which we know the laws of inevitability,
• 2:37:51
  Speaker 5: to which it is subject from the first knowledge that
• 2:37:54
  Speaker 5: all bodies have weight up to Newton's law, so too
• 2:37:57
  Speaker 5: the force of free will, incompresce pencible in itself, but
• 2:38:01
  Speaker 5: of which every one is conscious, is intelligible to us
• 2:38:04
  Speaker 5: only in as far as we know the laws of
• 2:38:06
  Speaker 5: inevitability to which it is subject. From the fact that
• 2:38:09
  Speaker 5: every man dies. Up to the knowledge of the most
• 2:38:12
  Speaker 5: complex economic and historic laws, all knowledge is merely a
• 2:38:17
  Speaker 5: bringing of this essence of life. Under the laws of reason.
• 2:38:21
  Speaker 5: Man's free will differs from every other force in that
• 2:38:25
  Speaker 5: man is directly conscious of it. But in the eyes
• 2:38:27
  Speaker 5: of reason, it in no way differs from any other force.
• 2:38:31
  Speaker 5: The forces of gravitation, electricity, or chemical affinity are only
• 2:38:35
  Speaker 5: distinguished from one another in that they are differently defined
• 2:38:37
  Speaker 5: by reason. Just so the force of man's free will
• 2:38:41
  Speaker 5: is distinguished by reason from the other forces of nature
• 2:38:44
  Speaker 5: only by the definition that reason gives it freedom apart
• 2:38:48
  Speaker 5: from necessity, that is, apart from the laws of reason
• 2:38:51
  Speaker 5: that define it differs in no way from gravitation or heat,
• 2:38:56
  Speaker 5: or the force that makes things grow. For reason, it
• 2:38:59
  Speaker 5: is only a momentary, undefinable sensation of life. And as
• 2:39:04
  Speaker 5: the undefinable essence of the force moving the heavenly bodies,
• 2:39:07
  Speaker 5: the undefinable essence of the forces of heat and electricity,
• 2:39:10
  Speaker 5: or of chemical affinity, or of the vital force, forms
• 2:39:14
  Speaker 5: the content of astronomy, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and so on.
• 2:39:21
  Speaker 5: Just in the same way does the force of free
• 2:39:23
  Speaker 5: will form the content of history. But just as the
• 2:39:27
  Speaker 5: subject of every science is the manifestation of this unknown
• 2:39:30
  Speaker 5: essence of life, while that essence itself can only be
• 2:39:33
  Speaker 5: the subject of metaphysics, even the manifestation of the force
• 2:39:37
  Speaker 5: of free will in human beings, in space, in time,
• 2:39:40
  Speaker 5: and in dependence on cause forms the subject of history,
• 2:39:44
  Speaker 5: while free will itself is the subject of metaphysics. In
• 2:39:49
  Speaker 5: the experimental sciences, what we know we call the laws
• 2:39:52
  Speaker 5: of inevitability. What is unknown to us we call vital force.
• 2:39:57
  Speaker 5: Vital force is only an expression for the other unknown
• 2:40:00
  Speaker 5: remainder over and above what we know of the essence
• 2:40:02
  Speaker 5: of life. So also in history, what is known to
• 2:40:06
  Speaker 5: us we call laws of inevitability. What is unknown we
• 2:40:10
  Speaker 5: call free will. Free will is for history only an
• 2:40:14
  Speaker 5: expression for the unknown, remainder of what we know about
• 2:40:17
  Speaker 5: the laws of human life. End of Chapter ten.
• 2:40:22
  Speaker 1: History examines the manifestations of man's free will in connection
• 2:40:26
  Speaker 1: with the external world in time and independence on cause.
• 2:40:30
  Speaker 1: That is, it defines this freedom by the laws of reason,
• 2:40:34
  Speaker 1: and so history is a science only in so far
• 2:40:37
  Speaker 1: as this free will is defined by those laws. The
• 2:40:41
  Speaker 1: recognition of man's free will as something capable of influencing
• 2:40:45
  Speaker 1: historical events, that is, as not subject to laws, is
• 2:40:49
  Speaker 1: the same for history as the recognition of a free
• 2:40:51
  Speaker 1: force moving the heavenly bodies would be for astronomy. That
• 2:40:55
  Speaker 1: assumption would destroy the possibility of the existence of laws,
• 2:41:00
  Speaker 1: that is, of any science whatever. If there is even
• 2:41:04
  Speaker 1: a single body moving freely, then the laws of Kepler
• 2:41:07
  Speaker 1: and Muton are negatived, and no conception of the movement
• 2:41:11
  Speaker 1: of the heavenly bodies any longer exists. If any single
• 2:41:15
  Speaker 1: action is due to free will, then not a single
• 2:41:18
  Speaker 1: historical law can exist, nor any conception of historical events.
• 2:41:23
  Speaker 1: For history, lines exist of the movement of human wills.
• 2:41:27
  Speaker 1: One end of which is hidden in the unknown, but
• 2:41:29
  Speaker 1: at the other end of which a consciousness of man's
• 2:41:32
  Speaker 1: will in the present moves in space, time and dependence
• 2:41:35
  Speaker 1: on cause. The more this field of motion spreads out
• 2:41:39
  Speaker 1: before our eyes, the more evident to the laws of
• 2:41:41
  Speaker 1: that movement. To discover and define those laws is the
• 2:41:45
  Speaker 1: problem of history. From the standpoint from which the science
• 2:41:49
  Speaker 1: of history now regards its subjects on the path it
• 2:41:52
  Speaker 1: now follows seeking the causes of events in man's free will,
• 2:41:56
  Speaker 1: a scientific denunciation of those laws is impossible. For wherever
• 2:42:00
  Speaker 1: man's free will may be restricted, as soon as we
• 2:42:03
  Speaker 1: recognize it as a force not subject to law, the
• 2:42:06
  Speaker 1: existence of law becomes impossible. Only by reducing this element
• 2:42:10
  Speaker 1: of free will to the infinitesmal, that is, by regarding
• 2:42:14
  Speaker 1: it as an infinitely small quantity. Can we convince ourselves
• 2:42:18
  Speaker 1: of the absolute inaccessibility of the causes, And then, instead
• 2:42:22
  Speaker 1: of seeking causes, history will take the discovery of laws
• 2:42:26
  Speaker 1: as its problem. The search for these laws has long
• 2:42:29
  Speaker 1: been begun, and the new methods of thought which history
• 2:42:32
  Speaker 1: must adopt are being worked out simultaneously with a self destruction,
• 2:42:37
  Speaker 1: toward which, ever, dissecting and dissecting the causes of phenomena.
• 2:42:41
  Speaker 1: The old method of history is moving. All human sciences
• 2:42:45
  Speaker 1: have traveled along that path, arriving at infinitesmals. Mathematics, the
• 2:42:51
  Speaker 1: most exact of sciences, abandons the process of analysis and
• 2:42:55
  Speaker 1: enters on the new process of the integration of unknown,
• 2:42:58
  Speaker 1: infinitely small quantities. Abandoning the conception of cause, Mathematics seeks law,
• 2:43:05
  Speaker 1: that is, the property common to all unknown, infinitely small elements,
• 2:43:10
  Speaker 1: in another form, but along the same path of reflection
• 2:43:13
  Speaker 1: the other sciences have proceeded. When Newton enunciated the law
• 2:43:17
  Speaker 1: of gravity, he did not say that the Sun nor
• 2:43:20
  Speaker 1: the Earth had a property of attraction. He said that
• 2:43:23
  Speaker 1: all bodies, from the largest to the smallest, have the
• 2:43:26
  Speaker 1: property of attracting one another. That is, leaving aside the
• 2:43:29
  Speaker 1: question of the cause of the movement of the bodies,
• 2:43:32
  Speaker 1: he expressed the property common to all bodies, from the
• 2:43:35
  Speaker 1: infinitely large to the infinitely small. The same is done
• 2:43:39
  Speaker 1: by the natural sciences, leaving aside the question of cause.
• 2:43:42
  Speaker 1: They seek for laws. History stands on the same path.
• 2:43:46
  Speaker 1: And if history has for its object the study of
• 2:43:48
  Speaker 1: the movement of the nations and of humanity, and not
• 2:43:51
  Speaker 1: the narration of episodes, in the lives of individuals. It too,
• 2:43:54
  Speaker 1: setting aside the conception of cause, should seek the laws
• 2:43:57
  Speaker 1: common to all, inseparably inconnected infinitismal elements of free will
• 2:44:02
  Speaker 1: end of Chapter eleven.
• 2:44:04
  Speaker 6: From the time the Law of Copernicus was discovered and proved,
• 2:44:08
  Speaker 6: the mere recognition of the fact that it was not
• 2:44:10
  Speaker 6: the sun but the earth that moves sufficed to destroy
• 2:44:14
  Speaker 6: the whole cosmography of the ancients. By disproving that law,
• 2:44:19
  Speaker 6: it might have been possible to retain the old conception
• 2:44:22
  Speaker 6: of the movement of the bodies, But without disproving it,
• 2:44:26
  Speaker 6: it would seem impossible to continue studying the Ptolemaic worlds.
• 2:44:31
  Speaker 6: But even after the discovery of the Law of Copernicus,
• 2:44:35
  Speaker 6: the Ptolemaic worlds were still studied for a long time.
• 2:44:40
  Speaker 6: From the time the first person said and proved that
• 2:44:43
  Speaker 6: the number of births or of crimes is subject to
• 2:44:47
  Speaker 6: mathematical laws, and that this or that mode of government
• 2:44:51
  Speaker 6: is determined by certain geographical and economic conditions, and that
• 2:44:56
  Speaker 6: certain relations of population to soil produced my grip of peoples.
• 2:45:01
  Speaker 6: The foundation on which history has been built, were destroyed
• 2:45:05
  Speaker 6: in their essence.
• 2:45:06
  Speaker 8: By refuting these new laws.
• 2:45:08
  Speaker 6: The former view of history might have been retained, but
• 2:45:12
  Speaker 6: without refuting them, it would seem impossible to continue studying
• 2:45:16
  Speaker 6: historic events as the result of man's free will.
• 2:45:20
  Speaker 1: For if a certain mode of government was established, or
• 2:45:23
  Speaker 1: certain migrations of people took place in consequence of such
• 2:45:27
  Speaker 1: and such geographic, ethnographic, or economic conditions, then the free
• 2:45:33
  Speaker 1: will of those individuals who appeared to us to have
• 2:45:36
  Speaker 1: established that mode of.
• 2:45:37
  Speaker 6: Government or occasioned the emigrations can no longer be regarded
• 2:45:42
  Speaker 6: as the cause.
• 2:45:44
  Speaker 4: And yet the former history continues to be studied side
• 2:45:48
  Speaker 4: by side with the laws of statistics, geography, political economy,
• 2:45:53
  Speaker 4: comparative philology, and geology, which directly contradict its assumptions.
• 2:46:00
  Speaker 6: The struggle between the old views and the new was
• 2:46:03
  Speaker 6: long and stubbornly fought out In physical philosophy. Theology stood
• 2:46:08
  Speaker 6: on guard for the old views and accused the new
• 2:46:11
  Speaker 6: of violating revelation. But when truth conquered, theology established itself
• 2:46:17
  Speaker 6: just as firmly on the new foundation.
• 2:46:19
  Speaker 4: Just as prolonged and stubborn is the struggle now.
• 2:46:22
  Speaker 6: Proceeding between the old and the new. Conception of history
• 2:46:26
  Speaker 6: and theology in the same way starts on guard for
• 2:46:29
  Speaker 6: the old views and accuses the new view of subverting revelation.
• 2:46:35
  Speaker 1: In the one case as in the other.
• 2:46:37
  Speaker 6: On both sides, the struggle provokes passion and stifles truths.
• 2:46:42
  Speaker 6: On the one hand, there is fear and regret for
• 2:46:45
  Speaker 6: the loss of the whole edifice constructed through the ages.
• 2:46:49
  Speaker 6: On the other is the passion for destruction.
• 2:46:52
  Speaker 7: To the men who fought against the rising truths of
• 2:46:55
  Speaker 7: physical philosophy, it seemed that if they admitted that truth,
• 2:46:59
  Speaker 7: it would destroy faith in God in the creation of
• 2:47:02
  Speaker 7: the firmament and in the miracle of Josua, the Son
• 2:47:05
  Speaker 7: of None, to the defenders of the laws of Copernicus
• 2:47:09
  Speaker 7: and Newton.
• 2:47:11
  Speaker 6: To Voltaire, for example, it seemed that the laws of
• 2:47:14
  Speaker 6: astronomy destroyed religion, and he utilized the law of gravitation
• 2:47:19
  Speaker 6: as a weapon against religion. Just so it now seems
• 2:47:24
  Speaker 6: as if we have only to admit the law of
• 2:47:26
  Speaker 6: inevitability to destroy the conception of the soul of good
• 2:47:31
  Speaker 6: and evil, and all the institutions of state and church
• 2:47:34
  Speaker 6: that have been built on those conceptions. So too, like
• 2:47:39
  Speaker 6: Voltaire in his time, uninvited defenders of the law of
• 2:47:43
  Speaker 6: inevitability today use that law as a weapon against religion,
• 2:47:48
  Speaker 6: though the law of inevitability in history, like the law
• 2:47:52
  Speaker 6: of Copernicus in astronomy, far from destroying, even strengthens the
• 2:47:57
  Speaker 6: foundation on which the institutions of state and the church
• 2:48:00
  Speaker 6: are erected. As in the question of astronomy then, though
• 2:48:05
  Speaker 6: in the question of history now the whole difference of
• 2:48:09
  Speaker 6: opinion is based on the recognition or non recognition of
• 2:48:13
  Speaker 6: something absolute, serving as the measure of visible phenomena.
• 2:48:18
  Speaker 4: In astronomy it was the immovability of the earth.
• 2:48:22
  Speaker 6: In history it is the independence of personality free will.
• 2:48:28
  Speaker 6: As with astronomy, the difficulty of recognizing the motion of
• 2:48:32
  Speaker 6: the Earth lay in abandoning the immediate sensation of the
• 2:48:36
  Speaker 6: Earth's fixity and of the motion of the planets.
• 2:48:41
  Speaker 4: So in history, the difficulty of recognizing the subjection of
• 2:48:45
  Speaker 4: personality to the laws of space, time and cause lies
• 2:48:50
  Speaker 4: in renouncing the direct feeling of the independence of one
• 2:48:54
  Speaker 4: owns personality.
• 2:48:56
  Speaker 6: But, as in astronomy, the new view said, it is
• 2:49:00
  Speaker 6: true that we do not feel the movement of the earth,
• 2:49:03
  Speaker 6: But by admitting its immobility we arrive at absurdity.
• 2:49:08
  Speaker 4: Why by admitting its motion, which we do not feel,
• 2:49:11
  Speaker 4: we arrive at laws.
• 2:49:13
  Speaker 2: So also in history, the near view says, it is
• 2:49:17
  Speaker 2: true that we are not conscious of our dependence, but
• 2:49:20
  Speaker 2: by admitting our free.
• 2:49:22
  Speaker 6: Will we arrive at absurdity, while by admitting our dependence
• 2:49:27
  Speaker 6: on the external world, on time, and on cause, we
• 2:49:30
  Speaker 6: arrive at laws.
• 2:49:33
  Speaker 4: In the first case, it was necessary to renounce the
• 2:49:36
  Speaker 4: consciousness of an unreal immobility in space and to recognize
• 2:49:40
  Speaker 4: a motion we did not feel.
• 2:49:43
  Speaker 6: In the present case, it is similarly necessary to renounce
• 2:49:47
  Speaker 6: a freedom that does not exist, and to recognize in
• 2:49:51
  Speaker 6: dependence of which we are not conscious. End of Chapter
• 2:49:58
  Speaker 6: twelve of Warren Pea's second epilog. End of the novel
• 2:50:04
  Speaker 6: War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy