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National Geographic Magazine Vol 10 - 05 May 1899 - National Geographic Society · National Geographic Magazine Vol. 10 - 05. May 1899

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  Speaker 1: Section one of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten May
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  Speaker 1: eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
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  Speaker 1: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 0:14
  Speaker 1: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Red by Larry
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  Speaker 1: Wilson The Redwood Forest of the Pacific Coast by Henry
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  Speaker 1: Gannett u s Geological Survey. Redwood is so called because
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  Speaker 1: of its color, which, when freshly cut, is a bright,
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  Speaker 1: though not deep red, changing to a brown bread when
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  Speaker 1: thoroughly seasoned. The wood is soft, with a rather coarse,
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  Speaker 1: straight grain. It is easy to work, quite as much
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  Speaker 1: so as our eastern white pine. It contains practically no resin,
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  Speaker 1: but a large amount of water, which makes the green
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  Speaker 1: wood so exceedingly heavy that often the lower log of
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  Speaker 1: a tree will sink in water. Botanically, the redwood sequoiousians
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  Speaker 1: is the brother of the big tree Sequoia gigantea of
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  Speaker 1: the Sierra Nevada, the two species being the sole living
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  Speaker 1: representatives of the genus Sequoia. It is a cousin of
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  Speaker 1: the cedars, which it resembles in many respects in habit
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  Speaker 1: and appearance, in bark and foliage. It is an immense tree,
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  Speaker 1: larger than the fur of Washington, but not as large
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  Speaker 1: as the Big Tree of the Sierra. It often attains
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  Speaker 1: a height exceeding three hundred feet and a but diameter
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  Speaker 1: of fifteen feet. It rarely branches low, but almost invariably
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  Speaker 1: shows a straight, fluted trunk, perfectly symmetrical, rising with a
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  Speaker 1: slight taper for two hundred feet to the lower branches.
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  Speaker 1: The bark is covered with thin flakes of epidermis lying
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  Speaker 1: parallel to the stem. The foliage is dull green in color,
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  Speaker 1: fine and drooping. It is a most beautiful tree, both
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  Speaker 1: in form and color. The habitat of the red wood
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  Speaker 1: is peculiar. It is found in a narrow strip closely
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  Speaker 1: hugging the Pacific coast, stretching from the southern boundary of
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  Speaker 1: Oregon or just across the boundary. For there are perhaps
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  Speaker 1: one thousand acres of redwood and Oregon southward through northern California,
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  Speaker 1: nearly to the Bay of San Francisco. Indeed, a few
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  Speaker 1: scattering groves are found south of the bay in Santa
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  Speaker 1: Cruz County and other localities, and there are evidences that
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  Speaker 1: not many centuries ago it extended over the coast ranges
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  Speaker 1: as far south as Los Angeles, but in all this
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  Speaker 1: region it is now practically extinct. The densest forests are
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  Speaker 1: found in Humboldt County. In Del Noort County on the north,
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  Speaker 1: the area is comparatively small and the forests somewhat less dense,
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  Speaker 1: while in Mendocino County on the south, where the redwood
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  Speaker 1: area is even greater than in Humboldt, the forests are
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  Speaker 1: not as dense, and Snoma County still farther south, the
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  Speaker 1: timber becomes more scattering, thending out into groves. Its habitat
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  Speaker 1: is a region of heavy rainfall which comes in the
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  Speaker 1: winter and the fogs which weep in from the Pacific
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  Speaker 1: at all times of the year. It is a very
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  Speaker 1: moist temperate region, both of which conditions appear to be
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  Speaker 1: essential to the growth of the species. On the north,
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  Speaker 1: its range is probably limited by temperature, since the humidity
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  Speaker 1: is even greater in Oregon of Washington than in California.
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  Speaker 1: On the south, it is probably limited by the diminishing
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  Speaker 1: amount of humidity. The species seems to require for its
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  Speaker 1: development a rather nice adjustment of temperature and moisture conditions,
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  Speaker 1: which are not found elsewhere, and as will be seen later,
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  Speaker 1: do not at present fully meet the needs of the species.
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  Speaker 1: Even in its present habitat. This is probably the densest
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  Speaker 1: forest on earth, as measured by the amount of merchantable timber,
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  Speaker 1: that is, of timber suitable for the sawmill contained per acre.
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  Speaker 1: It is not for the size of the trees alone
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  Speaker 1: which produces this, although they are except large, even in
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  Speaker 1: this state of large things. But it is the great
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  Speaker 1: number of trees on each acre, the closeness of their stand.
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  Speaker 1: In a redwood forest, the sun never shines, it is
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  Speaker 1: always twilight. You are, as it were, under the roof
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  Speaker 1: of a vast temple, a roof of foliage supported by
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  Speaker 1: great tree columns. In order to obtain a conception of
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  Speaker 1: the enormous stand of timber in the Redwood strip, let
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  Speaker 1: me commenced with some familiar examples for comparison. The great
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  Speaker 1: pineries of the Southern States contain, on an average about
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  Speaker 1: five thousand feet board measure a standing timber per acre
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  Speaker 1: of white pine. The heaviest county in Minnesota is estimated
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  Speaker 1: to contain an average of five thousand feet, while others
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  Speaker 1: regarded as forested contain one thousand to two thousand feet.
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  Speaker 1: An attract containing ten thousand feet per acre is regarded
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  Speaker 1: as heavily forested. Contrast these figures with the following. The
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  Speaker 1: average stand of redwood upon one hundre undred seventy three
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  Speaker 1: thousand acres in Mendocino County is forty four thousand feet
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  Speaker 1: per acre. There is here nearly nine times as much
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  Speaker 1: timber on an acre as in the southern pineries. Yet
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  Speaker 1: even this is succeeded in Humboldt County. Upon ninety six thousand,
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  Speaker 1: four hundred forty three acres. In this county, the irish
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  Speaker 1: stand is eighty four thousand feet per acre, nearly seventeen
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  Speaker 1: times as great as in the southern States. The lumber
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  Speaker 1: companies around Eureka, California, the principal center of the redwood industry,
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  Speaker 1: have realized since they commits operations an average of between
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  Speaker 1: seventy five thousand and one hundred thousand feet per acre,
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  Speaker 1: and one of these companies has for ten years cut
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  Speaker 1: an average eighty four thousand feet per acre of redwood alone,
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  Speaker 1: besides fir and spruce, which would increase the amount to
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  Speaker 1: nearly one hundred thousand feet. These last figures are not
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  Speaker 1: in any way estimates, but the actual of the mills.
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  Speaker 1: The disproportion is even greater than appears here, For the
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  Speaker 1: standard for lumber used in the Redwood country is much
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  Speaker 1: higher than in the East, and consequently the estimates of
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  Speaker 1: the amount of timber are correspondingly less. For instance, whereas
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  Speaker 1: in the East, logs eight inches in diameter are cut
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  Speaker 1: and sent to the mill, and knotty stuff is sawed,
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  Speaker 1: on the Pacific Coast, nothing less than sixteen inches in
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  Speaker 1: diameter sowed and cleared lumber. Only if the redwood were
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  Speaker 1: used as economically as the Southern Pine, these estimates of
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  Speaker 1: its stand might easily be fifty percent greater. The force
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  Speaker 1: of Washington and Oregan are very heavy, but they by
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  Speaker 1: no means equal the red Woods in density. The most
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  Speaker 1: heavily forested county in Washington, Scadget, contains an average on
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  Speaker 1: its forest land of but twenty eight thousand feet per acre,
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  Speaker 1: and in Oregon the stand is no greater. Of course,
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  Speaker 1: there are in these states individual acres and even square
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  Speaker 1: miles which are vastly more heavily forested. But so also
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  Speaker 1: are there in the Redwood Strip on mad River near Eureka,
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  Speaker 1: A lumber company is at work in a tract several
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  Speaker 1: square miles, which actually cuts one hundred fifty thousand feet
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  Speaker 1: per acre. There is on record a single acre near
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  Speaker 1: Garberville which yielded in the mill one million, four hundred
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  Speaker 1: three one thousand, five hundred thirty feet in lumber. There
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  Speaker 1: was sufficient lumber on this acre to have covered it
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  Speaker 1: with a solid block of frame dwellings ten stories high.
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  Speaker 1: A redwood tree of average size, say five feet in
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  Speaker 1: diameter at the butt, furnishes enough lumber to build an
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  Speaker 1: ordinary cottage, and many trees have been cut, each of
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  Speaker 1: which would suffice for half a dozen such houses. One
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  Speaker 1: tree is on record as having scaled sixty six thousand,
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  Speaker 1: five hundred feet. The tree was felled in a lumber
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  Speaker 1: camp near Eureka in eighteen ninety eight, which was sixteen
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  Speaker 1: feet in diameter inside the bark, and which scaled over
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  Speaker 1: one hundred thousand feet. And there is standing in the
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  Speaker 1: same neighborhood a tree twenty two feet in diameter, which
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  Speaker 1: scales nearly twice as much. Such examples of wonderful yield
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  Speaker 1: might be multiplied to any extent, but this would merely
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  Speaker 1: involve repetition. The Redwood strip is composed of the westernmost
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  Speaker 1: of the coast ranges with the valleys between them. It
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  Speaker 1: is narrow at the north in del Noort County, where
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  Speaker 1: it is not over five or six miles in breadth.
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  Speaker 1: It widens in Humboldt County to an average of ten
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  Speaker 1: to twelve miles. Then, south of Eel River in the
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  Speaker 1: southern part of the county its continuity is broken for
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  Speaker 1: a few miles. At the north edge of Mendocino County,
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  Speaker 1: it commences again, and in the central part of that
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  Speaker 1: county attains its greatest breadth of perhaps twenty miles. Farther south,
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  Speaker 1: especially in Sonoma County, the redwood scatter found in detached
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  Speaker 1: clumps and groves, which become more and more scattering southward.
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  Speaker 1: The trees, however, remain as large as elsewhere. The closest
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  Speaker 1: and finest growth is in Humboldt County near the northern end.
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  Speaker 1: That portion of Mendocino and Sonoma Counties is not as
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  Speaker 1: heavy or continuous, nor are the trees as valuable for
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  Speaker 1: lumber as they branch lower down. The wood is, however,
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  Speaker 1: of slower growth is denser and harder, and perhaps more durable.
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  Speaker 1: The best lumber in the heaviest growth is everywhere in
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  Speaker 1: the valleys and on the flats. On the hillsides, the
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  Speaker 1: trees are smaller and not so close. Nowhere is there
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  Speaker 1: any young growth. The youngest trees, which are found only
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  Speaker 1: in the northern portion of the belt, are several hundred
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  Speaker 1: years of age. When the timber has been cut, there
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  Speaker 1: is no sign of reproduction from seed. In many localities,
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  Speaker 1: sprouts are growing from stumps in the cut areas, but
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  Speaker 1: even this form of reproduction is limited. Indeed, everything appears
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  Speaker 1: to indicate that, for some reason, probably a progressive drying
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  Speaker 1: of the climate, the present environment is not favorable to
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  Speaker 1: the growth of redwood, and that with the clearing away
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  Speaker 1: of the present force, the end of the species as
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  Speaker 1: a source of lumber will be at hand. The area
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  Speaker 1: of the redwood belt has been carefully mapped and is
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  Speaker 1: as nearly as can be estimated two thousand square miles
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  Speaker 1: are one million, two hundred eighty thousand acres. The stand
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  Speaker 1: of timber on this area is not so easy to ascertain.
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  Speaker 1: The figures giving above in this article are the best
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  Speaker 1: that have been obtained. I will recapitulate them with additions
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  Speaker 1: in del Noort County. Out of sixty seven thousand acres
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  Speaker 1: of redwood land, eleven thousand acres are estimated to contain
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  Speaker 1: an average stand of sixty thousand feet. In Humboldt County,
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  Speaker 1: out of an area of five hundred thousand acres, ninety
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  Speaker 1: six thousand, four hundred forty three acres have an average
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  Speaker 1: of eighty four thousand feet, with a range in different
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  Speaker 1: tracks from twenty five thousand to two hundred thousand feet.
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  Speaker 1: These figures are corroborated by the result of all the
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  Speaker 1: cutting done in the neighborhood of Eureka, where nearly all
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  Speaker 1: the lumbering of the county is done. The companies report
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  Speaker 1: an average yield of between seventy five thousand and one
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  Speaker 1: hundred thousand feet per acre. In Mendocino County, out of
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  Speaker 1: a redwood area of six hundred forty thousand acres, one
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  Speaker 1: hundred seventy three thousand acres are reported to contain an
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  Speaker 1: average of forty four thousand feet, with a range from
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  Speaker 1: twelve thousand to seventy five thousand feet. In Sonoma County,
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  Speaker 1: the timber is so scattering that the total amount which
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  Speaker 1: is spread over an area of some seventy five thousand
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  Speaker 1: acres is comparatively slight. Using the above figures, we obtain
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  Speaker 1: as the amount of standing redwood the following del Nord
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  Speaker 1: County four billion feet, Humboldt County forty two billion feet,
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  Speaker 1: Mendocinou County twenty eight billion, one hundred sixty million feet,
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  Speaker 1: Sonoma County say one billion feet total seventy five billion,
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  Speaker 1: one hundred sixty million feet. To appreciate the magnitude of
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  Speaker 1: these figures, it may be said that the annual cut
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  Speaker 1: of lumber in all the mills of the United States
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  Speaker 1: is about one third of this amount. The Redwood Strip
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  Speaker 1: alone would therefore supply the entire country with mill timber
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  Speaker 1: for three years. Many estimates of the amount of standing
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  Speaker 1: redwood have been made, with results widely at variance with
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  Speaker 1: one another. The area of the belt has long been
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  Speaker 1: pretty well known, but the discrepancies among the estimates seem
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  Speaker 1: to be due mainly to differences in the estimated stand
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  Speaker 1: per acre. The first estimate that I find was made
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  Speaker 1: in eighteen eighty one by John Dolbear of Eureka, who
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  Speaker 1: gave twenty three thousand, six hundred fifty million feet at
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  Speaker 1: about the same time, mister E. L. Allen, secretary of
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  Speaker 1: the Redwood Manufacturers Association of San Francisco, made the estimate
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  Speaker 1: published in the report of the tenth census, which was
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  Speaker 1: twenty five thousand, eight hundred twenty five millions. In eighteen
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  Speaker 1: eighty five, mister Hubert Usher published in the report of
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  Speaker 1: the California State Board of Forestry an estimate of thirty thousand,
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  Speaker 1: five hundred millions, and in eighteen ninety Captain ac Tibbets,
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  Speaker 1: secretary of the Humble Lumber Manufacturers Association of Eureka, estimated
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  Speaker 1: it at ninety seven thousand, five hundred million feet. The
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  Speaker 1: area seems to be generally agreed upon as being from
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  Speaker 1: one million to one million, two hundred eighty thousand acres.
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  Speaker 1: The measurements from the best map available, that of the
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  Speaker 1: State Board of Forestry, give the latter figures. It is
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  Speaker 1: out of the question that the redwood lands yield on
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  Speaker 1: an average so little as twenty thousand to thirty thousand
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  Speaker 1: feet per acre. All estimates of stand and all records
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  Speaker 1: of cut show yields far in excess of these figures,
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  Speaker 1: and it cannot be contended successfully that these estimates and
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  Speaker 1: records relate only to selected areas far above the average.
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  Speaker 1: There is as yet very little selection of timber lands
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  Speaker 1: taking place. The whole territory is so heavily forceded that
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  Speaker 1: it is no advantage to select those most thickly clothed
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  Speaker 1: with timber, but rather a disadvantage. The only selection yet
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  Speaker 1: made has been on the score of accessibility by stream
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  Speaker 1: in earlier times and by rail route at present. I
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  Speaker 1: consider therefore that the figures quoted above, which represent two
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  Speaker 1: hundred eighty thousand acres out of one million, two hundred
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  Speaker 1: eighty thousand, or nearly one fourth of the entire area,
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  Speaker 1: together with the records of the entire amount cut and
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  Speaker 1: Humboldt County furnish a fair sample of the stand in
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  Speaker 1: the belt. Captain Tibbet's estimate seems to me under present
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  Speaker 1: logging condition, much too high, but I have no reasonable
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  Speaker 1: doubt that his amount will eventually be cut from the belt,
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  Speaker 1: owing to the economies to be effected in the future.
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  Speaker 1: The annual cut by the mills, excluding other uses to
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  Speaker 1: which the wood is put, such as firewood, shingles, ties,
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  Speaker 1: posts and poles for such uses are not considered in
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  Speaker 1: the estimate of the stand, is two hundred fifty million
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  Speaker 1: feet at the present rate of cutting. Therefore, the supply
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  Speaker 1: will probably last for three hundred years. The rate of
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  Speaker 1: cutting will, however, increase and as transportation is cheapened, may
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  Speaker 1: increase many hundred percent. For instance, the completion of an
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  Speaker 1: Isthmian Canal will open up the entire market of the
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  Speaker 1: Eastern States, where redwood will inevitably replace white pine, causing
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  Speaker 1: an immense demand. On the other hand, with the increased
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  Speaker 1: demand will come increased economy in the utilization of the wood.
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  Speaker 1: At present, only about one third of the tree emerges
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  Speaker 1: from the mill a saw lumber. Nothing but clear lumber
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  Speaker 1: is sawed. One may go through miles of lumber yards
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  Speaker 1: at Eureka and examine millions of feet of lumber without
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  Speaker 1: finding a knot, or indeed an imperfection of any kind.
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  Speaker 1: The upper branch third of the tree is left in
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  Speaker 1: the woods. In felling the tree, there is much damage done.
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  Speaker 1: Although great care and skill are exercised, the fall of
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  Speaker 1: one of these giants, weighing scores of tons, not infrequently
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  Speaker 1: splinters them. Occasionally two a tree falls across its fallen
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  Speaker 1: fellows and thus produces great destruction in the mill. The
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  Speaker 1: amount of lumber is diminished first by the slabs cut
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  Speaker 1: from the outside of the log, and second by the sawdust.
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  Speaker 1: This last is an item of great importance, especially where
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  Speaker 1: circular saws are used. The great saws used in the
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  Speaker 1: first cutting of the logs make a cut five eighths
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  Speaker 1: of an inch in thickness. This means that if the
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  Speaker 1: log were cut directly into inch boards, more than one
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  Speaker 1: one third of the wood would be converted into sawdust,
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  Speaker 1: but this is not often done. The log is commonly
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  Speaker 1: first cut into thick planks and beams, and these are
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  Speaker 1: subsequently cut into smaller dimensions by smaller, thinner saws. Moreover,
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  Speaker 1: in most of the great mills today, the first cutting
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  Speaker 1: is done by bandsaws, which are much thinner and consequently
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  Speaker 1: convert less of the log into sawdust. Into Section one
• 17:34
  Speaker 1: Section two of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten, May
• 17:39
  Speaker 1: eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
• 17:44
  Speaker 1: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 17:48
  Speaker 1: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Larry Wilson.
• 17:55
  Speaker 1: The Redwood Forest of the Pacific Coast by Henry gannett
• 17:59
  Speaker 1: Us Geoligical Survey, Part two. There is one cause of
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  Speaker 1: destruction from which this tree is entirely exempt. That is
• 18:09
  Speaker 1: fire containing no pitch, but on the other hand a
• 18:13
  Speaker 1: large amount of water. It will not burn when green.
• 18:17
  Speaker 1: No fire can run in a redwood forest. We shall,
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  Speaker 1: beyond reasonable question, have the use of our supply of redwood,
• 18:25
  Speaker 1: shall not have the pain a seen that go up
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  Speaker 1: and smoke. It is the only one of our coniferous
• 18:30
  Speaker 1: lumber trees which is thus exempt. The redwood is entirely
• 18:35
  Speaker 1: in private hands, having long ago passed from government ownership.
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  Speaker 1: It is mainly held in small tracks by a great
• 18:42
  Speaker 1: number of persons, but a few of the lumber companies
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  Speaker 1: have large holdings. Classifying the two hundred eighty thousand acres
• 18:50
  Speaker 1: above spoken of by holdings, it appears that of a
• 18:54
  Speaker 1: quarter section one hundred sixty acres or less, there were
• 18:57
  Speaker 1: sixty one holdings from one quarter section to a section
• 19:01
  Speaker 1: six hundred forty acres, seven holdings from one section to
• 19:05
  Speaker 1: four sections, eight holdings from four sections to eighteen sections,
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  Speaker 1: eleven holdings from eighteen sections to a township, seven holdings
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  Speaker 1: over a township, three holdings. The last four tracks of
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  Speaker 1: thirty thousand, thirty thousand and twenty seven thousand acres. The
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  Speaker 1: above are the holdings of lumber and mill companies. Whether
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  Speaker 1: this classification properly represents the character the holdings of the
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  Speaker 1: entire belt is doubtful. It is probable that the holdings
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  Speaker 1: of those not owners of mills or logging camps are smaller.
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  Speaker 1: The forest is nearly pure wedwood. Occasionally spruce and oregon
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  Speaker 1: pine that is, red fir are found, forming perhaps ten
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  Speaker 1: percent of the forest. Only. The southern part of the
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  Speaker 1: strip is on the whole composed of older trees than
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  Speaker 1: the northern part, and the wood is denser and of
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  Speaker 1: less rapid growth. In the north are some tracks covered
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  Speaker 1: with trees not more than two hundred or three hundred
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  Speaker 1: years old, while the age of the mature trees reaches
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  Speaker 1: several hundred perhaps a thousand years. The annual rings show
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  Speaker 1: that in the north, especially in damp valleys, the growth
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  Speaker 1: is several times as rapid as in the southern part
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  Speaker 1: of the strip. The methods used in logging are in
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  Speaker 1: the main similar to those employed in the Great Fir
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  Speaker 1: forests of Washington, but with slight modifications to fit different conditions.
• 20:27
  Speaker 1: The use of animals such as oxen and mules. For
• 20:30
  Speaker 1: dragging the logs from the woods is over, so are
• 20:33
  Speaker 1: the days for driving logs and streams. More modern methods
• 20:36
  Speaker 1: are universally employed. Indeed, the most modern methods of labor
• 20:41
  Speaker 1: saving are here in use in every respect. A redwood
• 20:45
  Speaker 1: logging cap and a red wood lumber mill are thoroughly
• 20:48
  Speaker 1: up to date, nay more, they are the pioneers in
• 20:51
  Speaker 1: labor saving devices. The trees are felled in this wise.
• 20:56
  Speaker 1: They are topped half way through on the side on
• 20:58
  Speaker 1: which they are to fall, then the other half is
• 21:00
  Speaker 1: cut with the saw. Two days work of two men
• 21:04
  Speaker 1: is required to fell a tree five feet in diameter.
• 21:07
  Speaker 1: The felling must be done with the utmost accuracy, as
• 21:11
  Speaker 1: the tree stands so thickly that when fell, they cover
• 21:14
  Speaker 1: the ground completely. And yet they must not be allowed
• 21:17
  Speaker 1: to fall on one another, as that would involve great
• 21:20
  Speaker 1: loss by breakage. The felling is done in the winter,
• 21:23
  Speaker 1: the season of rains, when the ground is soft, and
• 21:25
  Speaker 1: the trees are left lying on the ground until late spring,
• 21:29
  Speaker 1: when things have become drier, when the whole thing is
• 21:31
  Speaker 1: set on fire. This fire burns the brush and branches
• 21:35
  Speaker 1: and much of the bark, but does not injure the
• 21:38
  Speaker 1: trees themselves, which are still too wet to burn. Then
• 21:42
  Speaker 1: the work of cutting up the trees and getting the
• 21:44
  Speaker 1: logs out begins. The trees are sawed by hand with
• 21:47
  Speaker 1: whip saws into logs generally sixteen feet in length, although
• 21:52
  Speaker 1: greater links are not infrequently cut for special needs. The
• 21:56
  Speaker 1: big logs are split into halves and quarters for convenience
• 21:59
  Speaker 1: and handling. A sign from the end of the railroad,
• 22:02
  Speaker 1: for railroads have taken the place of streams in the
• 22:05
  Speaker 1: transportation of logs. A road is built through the logged area.
• 22:09
  Speaker 1: This may be merely a dirt road of hard compact clay,
• 22:13
  Speaker 1: kept wet and muddy by liberal application of water, packed
• 22:16
  Speaker 1: in bags on horses, or it may be a skid
• 22:19
  Speaker 1: road paved with small logs laid crosswise at short intervals,
• 22:24
  Speaker 1: and likewise kept a slippery A force of fifty to
• 22:28
  Speaker 1: seventy five men is employed, and two donkey engines. The
• 22:31
  Speaker 1: latter do all the work, taking the place of oxen
• 22:34
  Speaker 1: and mules, and to a great extent of men in
• 22:37
  Speaker 1: the labor of moving logs about in the woods and
• 22:40
  Speaker 1: dragging them down to the railroad. The donkey engine in
• 22:43
  Speaker 1: the woods is anchored by wire cables to stumps at
• 22:47
  Speaker 1: a strategic point so that in the subsequent operations it
• 22:50
  Speaker 1: will move the log and not itself. Then a wire
• 22:54
  Speaker 1: cable attached to a drum on the engine is carried
• 22:56
  Speaker 1: through pulleys to the log to be moved, and is
• 23:00
  Speaker 1: attached by hooks so that by winding up the cable
• 23:03
  Speaker 1: on the drum, the log is moved to the desired position.
• 23:07
  Speaker 1: Often much ingenuities required for the propered placing of pulleys
• 23:11
  Speaker 1: in order to produce the desired result, but in all
• 23:14
  Speaker 1: cases the machine, directed by experienced heads does its work
• 23:18
  Speaker 1: quickly and effectively. It is extremely interesting to watch the
• 23:22
  Speaker 1: varied operations of a donkey engine in handling the logs
• 23:26
  Speaker 1: and clearing away the waiste lumber, and not the least
• 23:29
  Speaker 1: interesting part of it is the quickness and clear comprehension
• 23:32
  Speaker 1: of the men. There is no fuss or noise. Everything
• 23:36
  Speaker 1: in the varied operations goes on quietly and smoothly. If
• 23:40
  Speaker 1: the foreman gives instructions, they are general ones and in detail.
• 23:44
  Speaker 1: Each man knows his part, recognizes what he has to
• 23:47
  Speaker 1: do and when to do it. Soon, a trade of
• 23:50
  Speaker 1: logs ten to twelve in number is on the road
• 23:53
  Speaker 1: chained together tandem. Then the cable donkey is called upon.
• 23:58
  Speaker 1: This is a stationary engine located at the end of
• 24:00
  Speaker 1: the railroad. From its drum goes a wire cable along
• 24:03
  Speaker 1: the road up to the slashings, just like the cable
• 24:07
  Speaker 1: of a street car line, except that the cable is
• 24:10
  Speaker 1: on the surface instead of below it. This cable is
• 24:13
  Speaker 1: fastened to the leading log of the train. The engine
• 24:16
  Speaker 1: is started and the train moves railroad ward. Just in
• 24:20
  Speaker 1: advance of the train walks a man with a bucket
• 24:22
  Speaker 1: with which he dips water from tubs along the road
• 24:25
  Speaker 1: and wets the track. Arrived at the end of the railroad,
• 24:28
  Speaker 1: a third engine is put to use in loading the
• 24:30
  Speaker 1: logs on the railroad trucks by the use of wire cables.
• 24:34
  Speaker 1: Here the logs are scaled in measurements recorded When the
• 24:38
  Speaker 1: train is loaded, it is hauled down to the mill
• 24:40
  Speaker 1: and the logs dumped into the water there to lie
• 24:43
  Speaker 1: until their turn comes for conversion into lumber. The work
• 24:48
  Speaker 1: in the woods is hard. Although every device is used
• 24:51
  Speaker 1: to reduce manual labor, there remains sufficient to make this
• 24:55
  Speaker 1: one of the most wearying of physical occupations. And it
• 24:59
  Speaker 1: is said that few men can stand the strain for
• 25:01
  Speaker 1: any great period. The work is also extremely dirty, owing
• 25:05
  Speaker 1: to the burning, so that the men look like stokers. Naturally,
• 25:09
  Speaker 1: this work commands high pay, and with high pay a
• 25:12
  Speaker 1: superior class of men, both physically and mentally, are obtained.
• 25:18
  Speaker 1: I took dinner one day in a camp with about
• 25:20
  Speaker 1: seventy five men, all splendid specimens of manhood, and all
• 25:24
  Speaker 1: black as negroes, faces, hands and clothing from the charcoal
• 25:28
  Speaker 1: in which they work, but well read, intelligent, and interested
• 25:32
  Speaker 1: in the doings of the outside world. The mills of
• 25:35
  Speaker 1: the Redwood Strip are as progressive and up to date
• 25:38
  Speaker 1: as are the logging operations. The logs in the lumber
• 25:42
  Speaker 1: are moved and handled everywhere by machinery in the most
• 25:46
  Speaker 1: complete and ingenious manner. They are drawn from the pond
• 25:50
  Speaker 1: up into the mills and are rolled on to the
• 25:52
  Speaker 1: carriage and moved into place for the saw by ingenious
• 25:56
  Speaker 1: devices operated by steam. The logs are soft by bandsaws,
• 26:01
  Speaker 1: a continuous band of steel with teeth cut on one edge,
• 26:05
  Speaker 1: running over drums above and below. This is preferable to
• 26:09
  Speaker 1: the circular saw for two reasons. It can saw a
• 26:12
  Speaker 1: log of almost any size, which the buzzsaw or any
• 26:16
  Speaker 1: combination of buzz saws cannot do. And second, since it
• 26:20
  Speaker 1: can be made much thinner than the buzz saw, there
• 26:23
  Speaker 1: is less waste of wood and sawdust. In some mills,
• 26:26
  Speaker 1: the bandsaws have teeth cut on each edge, so that
• 26:29
  Speaker 1: a cut may be made both as the log moves
• 26:31
  Speaker 1: forward and backward. The boards, beams, joists, plank, et cetera,
• 26:36
  Speaker 1: as they come from the bandsaw are distributed by rollers
• 26:40
  Speaker 1: steam worked to the proper parts of the mill for
• 26:42
  Speaker 1: future cutting, while the slabs and other waist are similarly
• 26:45
  Speaker 1: carried off to waste heaps. The lumber, as it comes
• 26:49
  Speaker 1: from the bandsaw is edged cut to similar dimensions, et cetera,
• 26:53
  Speaker 1: by small circular saws, in some cases harnessed in gangs,
• 26:57
  Speaker 1: so that several cuts are made at once. To wash
• 27:00
  Speaker 1: the wheels go round in one of these big mills
• 27:03
  Speaker 1: is a most entransing occupation. Redwood is in almost universal
• 27:08
  Speaker 1: use on the California coast in the construction of houses.
• 27:12
  Speaker 1: Little other timber is used even as far south as
• 27:15
  Speaker 1: Los Angeles and San Diego. It is exported as far
• 27:18
  Speaker 1: south as Valparizo, Chile, and westward to Japan and Australia. Indeed,
• 27:24
  Speaker 1: considering its cheapness fourteen per thousand feet in Eureka for
• 27:27
  Speaker 1: the best, it seems strange that it has not found
• 27:30
  Speaker 1: its way in quantity to the Atlantic coast. Certain it
• 27:34
  Speaker 1: is that before many years Redwood will supplant the now
• 27:37
  Speaker 1: vanishing white pine in eastern markets into section.
• 27:42
  Speaker 2: Two Section three of the National Geographic Magazine, volume ten,
• 27:53
  Speaker 2: May eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording. All
• 27:58
  Speaker 2: LibriVox recordings are in the public For more information or
• 28:01
  Speaker 2: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Is climatic aridity
• 28:09
  Speaker 2: impending on the Pacific Slope. The Testimony of the Forest
• 28:14
  Speaker 2: by JB. Leberg. The extension of explorations and observations in
• 28:20
  Speaker 2: the region of the country west of the Rocky Mountains
• 28:24
  Speaker 2: tends in many ways to develop and confirm the proposition
• 28:28
  Speaker 2: that a steadily progressive aridity is slowly replacing former, more
• 28:33
  Speaker 2: humid climatic conditions. This change is manifest in various ways,
• 28:39
  Speaker 2: most conspicuously in the decreasing volume of water in many
• 28:43
  Speaker 2: of the lakes and streams throughout the region, as shown
• 28:46
  Speaker 2: by the existence of former beachlines at higher levels and
• 28:50
  Speaker 2: in the profound disturbances and modifications taking place in the
• 28:54
  Speaker 2: native flora. The phenomena which follow the advance of aridity
• 29:00
  Speaker 2: are not limited by altitude. Four. While the desert conditions
• 29:04
  Speaker 2: at low elevations exhibit themselves in their most intense aspect,
• 29:09
  Speaker 2: they are also clearly traceable to the highest summits, where
• 29:13
  Speaker 2: gradually dwindling glaciers and abnormally high extensions of certain lowland
• 29:19
  Speaker 2: types of forest show the general trend of climatic change.
• 29:25
  Speaker 2: In the general exhibition of increasing aridity, there are to
• 29:29
  Speaker 2: be noted two important distinctions. One is dependent upon climatic effects,
• 29:35
  Speaker 2: the other upon the relief of a region as affecting
• 29:39
  Speaker 2: the drainage, and is termed soil aridity. Excellent examples of
• 29:44
  Speaker 2: the latter occur on the plains of the Columbia, where
• 29:48
  Speaker 2: the great coolies or sunken water channels, which traverse the
• 29:52
  Speaker 2: plains in all directions are separated by comparatively narrow blocks
• 29:58
  Speaker 2: of plateau like country. The drainage from these elevated tracts
• 30:02
  Speaker 2: is extremely rapid. As a consequence, their summits and slopes
• 30:06
  Speaker 2: are left without sufficient soil moisture during the growing season
• 30:11
  Speaker 2: to maintain a forest stand, although the annual precipitation is
• 30:16
  Speaker 2: high enough to make tree growth possible were the drainage
• 30:20
  Speaker 2: conditions different. Similar examples occur in the forested sub humid
• 30:25
  Speaker 2: and humid regions, where any large area on which temperature
• 30:29
  Speaker 2: and precipitation are practically the same throughout often show a
• 30:34
  Speaker 2: growth of species belonging to the drier areas in the
• 30:37
  Speaker 2: midst of the humid groups of trees, merely because the
• 30:41
  Speaker 2: angle of slope in some localities favors a more rapid
• 30:46
  Speaker 2: drainage than upon the contiguous areas. Similar effects are sometimes
• 30:51
  Speaker 2: produced by excessive porosity of soil. Loose sand and gravel
• 30:56
  Speaker 2: or volcanic ashes are poor conservators of more pusture and
• 31:00
  Speaker 2: part with it readily, both through evaporation and percolation. Soils
• 31:06
  Speaker 2: of these sorts are not common, however, in these regions,
• 31:10
  Speaker 2: where as a rule, moisture retentive qualities are the predominant characteristics.
• 31:16
  Speaker 2: In the following discussion, the question of soil aridity is
• 31:19
  Speaker 2: eliminated and the effects of climatic aridity alone are considered.
• 31:24
  Speaker 2: The variations of plant life which accompany the encroachments of
• 31:28
  Speaker 2: aridity are diverse and often very complex. Innumerable general modifications
• 31:34
  Speaker 2: and adaptations occur, mostly tending toward a more or less
• 31:39
  Speaker 2: successful resistance to the stress imposed by drier climatic conditions.
• 31:44
  Speaker 2: Local peculiarities, depending upon adjacent heights or depressions, specialize, that
• 31:51
  Speaker 2: is to say, they lessen or increase the general degree
• 31:55
  Speaker 2: of aridity prevalent over any large area, thereby favoring minute
• 32:00
  Speaker 2: adaptations or gradual transitions to more extensive and pronounced modifications.
• 32:08
  Speaker 2: In the region west of the Rocky Mountains, the forest
• 32:11
  Speaker 2: as a unit is the type of vegetation which, aside
• 32:15
  Speaker 2: from the purely aquatic element of the flora, suffers a
• 32:19
  Speaker 2: more profound disturbance of its equilibrium, and is more quickly
• 32:24
  Speaker 2: and thoroughly driven out by the advancing iridity than any other.
• 32:30
  Speaker 2: In the herbaceous and to a lesser extent in the
• 32:33
  Speaker 2: sufferutessent flora. There is a gradual evolution of new forms
• 32:38
  Speaker 2: or of entire groups of certain types to meet the
• 32:41
  Speaker 2: changing environments. It is doubtless true that many herbaceous and
• 32:46
  Speaker 2: shrubby species have gone under in this struggle within recent
• 32:51
  Speaker 2: geologic times, while others are so rare and scattered as
• 32:55
  Speaker 2: to warrant the assumption that they too are rapidly approb extinction.
• 33:01
  Speaker 2: But on the other hand, there are many groups possessing
• 33:04
  Speaker 2: the power of adaptation in a high degree, and through
• 33:08
  Speaker 2: the slow development of modifications or by evolution of what
• 33:13
  Speaker 2: we term species, they are enabled for a time to
• 33:17
  Speaker 2: withstand successfully very adverse conditions. It is different with the
• 33:23
  Speaker 2: forest growth in this region overwhelmingly composed of cone bearing
• 33:28
  Speaker 2: trees representing comparatively few species, it has an extremely narrow
• 33:34
  Speaker 2: margin for the evolution of new forms or species. The
• 33:38
  Speaker 2: fact stands out clear and distinct that most of the
• 33:42
  Speaker 2: types and species of the order of coniferay west of
• 33:47
  Speaker 2: the Rocky Mountains possess the power of adaptation only in
• 33:51
  Speaker 2: a very limited degree. Their outlying forms are few and
• 33:57
  Speaker 2: only vaguely definable. It is true that we can recognize
• 34:01
  Speaker 2: differences such as that of texture and color of wood,
• 34:05
  Speaker 2: variations in bark characteristics, or in the general port of
• 34:10
  Speaker 2: the various individuals of a species upon any given area.
• 34:14
  Speaker 2: But the differences are not such as to indicate that
• 34:18
  Speaker 2: they constitute a definite and sharply determined trend in adaptability.
• 34:24
  Speaker 2: They rather convey the impression that they are a series
• 34:27
  Speaker 2: of expiring gasps of a type of vegetation which reached
• 34:32
  Speaker 2: its culminating point of development immensely far back in time,
• 34:36
  Speaker 2: and is now on the road toward complete extinction. The
• 34:41
  Speaker 2: forest areas in this region which have been more closely
• 34:44
  Speaker 2: examined than any other in relation to the effects of
• 34:48
  Speaker 2: increasing aridity are the tracks adjacent to and encircling the
• 34:53
  Speaker 2: Columbia Watershed in Idaho, eastern Oregon, and western Washington. We
• 34:58
  Speaker 2: shall first examine the tracts lying within these limits, thence
• 35:03
  Speaker 2: passing to others elsewhere not so well known. When the
• 35:07
  Speaker 2: coniferous flora of the region is investigated, it is found
• 35:11
  Speaker 2: that certain species have a far higher ratio of endurance
• 35:15
  Speaker 2: to conditions of iridity than have others. This might be
• 35:19
  Speaker 2: taken to indicate a certain degree of adaptability, but the
• 35:22
  Speaker 2: strongly marked characters which separate the species were acquired ages ago,
• 35:27
  Speaker 2: and with the exception of one or two species, do
• 35:31
  Speaker 2: not in our region in the present age, show any
• 35:35
  Speaker 2: marked evolutionary tendencies. The minor effects of the encroachment of
• 35:40
  Speaker 2: aridity upon the forested areas are many, but comparatively unimportant.
• 35:46
  Speaker 2: The greater effects are contained in one general phase, which
• 35:50
  Speaker 2: strikes at the very foundation of the species' existence. It
• 35:55
  Speaker 2: consists in a gradual loss of reproductive power in the
• 36:00
  Speaker 2: individual trees and hence in the species as a unit,
• 36:04
  Speaker 2: and is marked by two periods. In the first, we
• 36:08
  Speaker 2: have a gradual crowding back to more humid tracts of
• 36:12
  Speaker 2: such species as require a considerable degree of soil and
• 36:17
  Speaker 2: atmospheric moisture for their growth. They are replaced by others
• 36:21
  Speaker 2: capable of enduring subhumid or distinctly semi arid environments. In
• 36:27
  Speaker 2: the second period, we have a gradual crowding out or
• 36:31
  Speaker 2: a complete extinction of the species of replacement hastened or
• 36:35
  Speaker 2: caused in the latter as in the former case by
• 36:39
  Speaker 2: a loss of reproductive vigor, and a final complete deforestation
• 36:44
  Speaker 2: of the particular area and the creation of a treeless region.
• 36:50
  Speaker 2: There are three general types of climatic conditions to which
• 36:53
  Speaker 2: the term arid will apply. They are semi arid, arid,
• 36:58
  Speaker 2: and desert as here deployed. The semi arid are regions
• 37:02
  Speaker 2: not necessarily deforested, but which support a treat growth of
• 37:06
  Speaker 2: peculiar species in other localities than in proximity to streams
• 37:11
  Speaker 2: and lakes. The arid are regions completely deforested away from
• 37:15
  Speaker 2: streams and lakes, natural or artificial, but which bear an
• 37:19
  Speaker 2: often rich and varied flora of herbaceous and sufferutescent vegetation.
• 37:25
  Speaker 2: The deserts are tracks without vegetation. The two former are
• 37:29
  Speaker 2: abundantly represented in this region by very large areas. As
• 37:34
  Speaker 2: we shall see, The third, or the desert, does not
• 37:37
  Speaker 2: exist here. It is common to speak of the desert
• 37:40
  Speaker 2: regions of eastern Oregon, for example, but the fact is
• 37:44
  Speaker 2: in no place has aridity reached its third and last stage.
• 37:49
  Speaker 2: When herbaceous vegetation is absent, as on certain alkali flats
• 37:53
  Speaker 2: east of Stein's Mountains, or on drifting sand dunes along
• 37:57
  Speaker 2: the Columbia and on the plains of eastern Washington and
• 38:01
  Speaker 2: northeastern Oregon, it is due to local soil conditions, not
• 38:06
  Speaker 2: to absence of sufficient precipitation. To facilitate a more detailed
• 38:11
  Speaker 2: examination of the various forest conditions as modified by increasing aridity,
• 38:17
  Speaker 2: the region under consideration will be divided into certain classes
• 38:21
  Speaker 2: or zones. These zonal distinctions have reference solely to the
• 38:26
  Speaker 2: amount of precipitation which each class receives without regard to
• 38:32
  Speaker 2: altitudinal limitations, and will be designated arid, semi arid, sub humid,
• 38:38
  Speaker 2: and humid areas. The regions of aridity. The regions of
• 38:45
  Speaker 2: greatest aridity north of the forty second parallel of latitude
• 38:50
  Speaker 2: between the Rocky Mountains and the Cascades are found in Idaho,
• 38:54
  Speaker 2: on the Snake River plains in eastern Oregon, on the
• 38:58
  Speaker 2: plateau areas between the Snake and the Owahee Rivers on
• 39:02
  Speaker 2: the one hand and the Stein's Mountains on the other,
• 39:06
  Speaker 2: in the region bounded by the Crooked River and the
• 39:08
  Speaker 2: Malheir Lakes and River on the north, Stein's Mountains on
• 39:13
  Speaker 2: the east, and the northern boundary of Nevada on the south,
• 39:16
  Speaker 2: and in the deshoots depression between the Blue Mountains and
• 39:20
  Speaker 2: the Cascades. In eastern Washington, north of the Snake and
• 39:24
  Speaker 2: east and south of the Columbia River. The aridity which
• 39:28
  Speaker 2: prevails upon these areas is of various degrees of intensity,
• 39:32
  Speaker 2: depending more or less upon local conditions and the proximity
• 39:37
  Speaker 2: or distance of humid snowy mountain ranges. In eastern Washington,
• 39:41
  Speaker 2: the driest section is situated at the eastern base of
• 39:45
  Speaker 2: the Cascades and extends eastward some sixty or seventy miles,
• 39:50
  Speaker 2: gradually merging into uniform semi arid and sub humid conditions
• 39:55
  Speaker 2: as the moisture condensing bitter Root Ranges are approached. In
• 40:00
  Speaker 2: eastern Oregon, the most arid tracts are found to the
• 40:03
  Speaker 2: west of the Owaihi, extending in a westerly and northerly
• 40:07
  Speaker 2: direction one hundred to one hundred and twenty miles. In
• 40:11
  Speaker 2: eastern Washington, the Cascade Range evidently contributes largely to the
• 40:16
  Speaker 2: aridity which exists on its east slope, and is therefore
• 40:20
  Speaker 2: a local factor. But in eastern Oregon, the most arid
• 40:24
  Speaker 2: tracts lie at a distance of two hundred miles or
• 40:27
  Speaker 2: more east from the Cascades, and owe their origin to
• 40:30
  Speaker 2: the interception of the moisture laden westerly and southwesterly winds
• 40:35
  Speaker 2: by the Sierra Nevada, and in a lesser degree by
• 40:39
  Speaker 2: other intermediate ranges. Irrespective of local conditions, however, it can
• 40:45
  Speaker 2: be stated as a general proposition, borne out by observed facts,
• 40:50
  Speaker 2: that the crest of the advancing wave of aridity in
• 40:53
  Speaker 2: the inter montane region of southern Idaho eastern Oregon and
• 40:58
  Speaker 2: eastern Washington is travel from the southeast toward the north
• 41:02
  Speaker 2: and northwest. The tracks termed arid, bear no forests. It
• 41:08
  Speaker 2: is true that narrow fringes of trees skirt many of
• 41:12
  Speaker 2: the rivers or creeks which meander through these areas, but
• 41:15
  Speaker 2: the growth is made possible only by the humid or
• 41:19
  Speaker 2: sub humid soil conditions due to the proximity of streams
• 41:23
  Speaker 2: and cease at short distances from their banks. Looking backward
• 41:28
  Speaker 2: in time, there are abundant proofs that many of the
• 41:32
  Speaker 2: now treeless tracts once bore a forest covering. Solicified wood
• 41:37
  Speaker 2: is found in thousands of localities in the region where
• 41:41
  Speaker 2: no tree growth is now possible owing to insufficient precipitation,
• 41:45
  Speaker 2: and its occurrence on the surface of these plains not
• 41:49
  Speaker 2: as transported material, but in place ar use in favor
• 41:54
  Speaker 2: of the hypothesis that the extinction of this forest growth
• 41:58
  Speaker 2: does not date back soon very many centuries. The fossil
• 42:03
  Speaker 2: wood where it occurs on the treeless areas is found
• 42:06
  Speaker 2: resting directly on the volcanic rocks, indicating that sufficient time
• 42:11
  Speaker 2: has not passed since the forest grew there to change
• 42:15
  Speaker 2: the surface in any perceptible degree. The fossil woods referred
• 42:20
  Speaker 2: to consist of remains of oak and probably of pines
• 42:24
  Speaker 2: and junipers, and if not wholly identical with species that
• 42:28
  Speaker 2: now exist in the adjacent regions, are very closely related.
• 42:33
  Speaker 2: There are also many localities on these arid tracts where
• 42:37
  Speaker 2: are found fossil plants of the Tertiary age, embedded in
• 42:41
  Speaker 2: rock deeply covered with basalt. But they belong to a
• 42:45
  Speaker 2: period when specifically distinct climatic conditions as compared with those
• 42:50
  Speaker 2: of our age, prevailed in the region, and are not
• 42:54
  Speaker 2: here considered. The areas classed as arid exists in many
• 43:00
  Speaker 2: localities in this intermontane region. The most extensive have already
• 43:05
  Speaker 2: been noticed, but favored by local conditions. Many small lobes
• 43:10
  Speaker 2: from the main body of aridity stretch out on all sides.
• 43:15
  Speaker 2: That they should penetrate into the areas we term semi
• 43:19
  Speaker 2: arid is to be expected, as they are but a
• 43:22
  Speaker 2: step removed, but it is rather surprising to find them
• 43:26
  Speaker 2: in the midst of sub humid conditions. Yet such is
• 43:30
  Speaker 2: exactly the case along the eastern base of the Cascades.
• 43:34
  Speaker 2: Many of the south and east facing slopes are distinctly arid,
• 43:38
  Speaker 2: though surrounded by an adjoining decidedly sub humid regions. Similar
• 43:43
  Speaker 2: conditions are encountered on the east, south, and west slopes
• 43:47
  Speaker 2: of the Powder River Mountains, on the plateau areas between
• 43:51
  Speaker 2: the clear Water and the Salmon Rivers in Idaho, and
• 43:54
  Speaker 2: even in scattered localities north of the Snake among the
• 43:59
  Speaker 2: terminations of the western spurs of the Bitter Roots. Crossing
• 44:03
  Speaker 2: the Bitter Roots and entering the basins and plateaus on
• 44:07
  Speaker 2: the west slope of the main range of the Rocky Mountains,
• 44:10
  Speaker 2: we once more meet these extensions of arid conditions projecting
• 44:15
  Speaker 2: into the sub humid regions. They are very well marked
• 44:19
  Speaker 2: in the region of the Blackfoot Basins, where they cross
• 44:22
  Speaker 2: the main range and connect with the arid Upper Missouri
• 44:26
  Speaker 2: Plains through the comparatively low passes at the head of
• 44:30
  Speaker 2: the Blackfoot Tributaries. Thence stretching westward, they cover large areas
• 44:36
  Speaker 2: of the Clark Fork of the Columbia Basin, and following
• 44:40
  Speaker 2: the valley of this stream, approached to within sixty or
• 44:43
  Speaker 2: seventy miles of the eastern Washington Plains in the Clark
• 44:48
  Speaker 2: Fork Watershed. These arid extensions are usually bordered by a
• 44:53
  Speaker 2: margin of semi aridity their penumbra, as it were. But
• 44:57
  Speaker 2: in many places they join and exist in the midst
• 45:01
  Speaker 2: of the sub humid timbered tracts without any semi arid transitions.
• 45:07
  Speaker 2: The causes which operate to bring about these apparently erratic
• 45:11
  Speaker 2: and sporadic advances of arid conditions are not very clear.
• 45:16
  Speaker 2: Where they occur in proximity to the general body of aridity,
• 45:20
  Speaker 2: their presence is easily explained. But we find such tracks
• 45:25
  Speaker 2: covered with herbaceous and shrubby vegetation peculiar to the very
• 45:30
  Speaker 2: arid regions in the midst of a forest of yellow pine,
• 45:34
  Speaker 2: or even higher where the elevation borders on the subalpine.
• 45:39
  Speaker 2: These isolated spots might be compared to sparks wafted far
• 45:43
  Speaker 2: in advance of a coming conflagration, each one consisting a
• 45:47
  Speaker 2: nucleus for the further spread of its own peculiar conditions.
• 45:53
  Speaker 2: The altitude of the arid tracts varies considerably. At the
• 45:57
  Speaker 2: junction of Snake and Columbia Rivers, it amounts to less
• 46:01
  Speaker 2: than one hundred and fifty feet above sea level. On
• 46:04
  Speaker 2: the southeastern Oregon plateau it rises to fully six thousand
• 46:09
  Speaker 2: feet on the slopes of various ranges such as Stein's Mountains,
• 46:14
  Speaker 2: the ranges to the east of Warner Lake, and on
• 46:17
  Speaker 2: unnamed heights between the Paulinas and mail Here Lake. Further north,
• 46:22
  Speaker 2: we find the arid tracts at elevations varying from six
• 46:26
  Speaker 2: hundred to three thousand feet on the eastern Washington Plains
• 46:30
  Speaker 2: and from four thousand to five thousand feet in the
• 46:33
  Speaker 2: regions between the Bitter Roots and the main crest of
• 46:36
  Speaker 2: the Rocky Mountains, the regions of semi aridity. From the
• 46:43
  Speaker 2: arid regions we enter those termed semi arid. We meet
• 46:48
  Speaker 2: here of forest growth. It is one which throughout these
• 46:51
  Speaker 2: regions is strictly typical of semi arid environments. As it
• 46:56
  Speaker 2: comes most closely in contact with the highest degree of
• 47:00
  Speaker 2: aridity and has to bear the full force of the
• 47:03
  Speaker 2: ultimate and permanent deforesting process, its condition and aspect become
• 47:09
  Speaker 2: doubly interesting. The forest growth is wholly composed of junipers
• 47:14
  Speaker 2: belonging to the following species Juniperus monosperma one seeded juniper
• 47:21
  Speaker 2: Juniperus occidentalis, Western juniper Juniperous scopalorum, mountain juniper. They occur
• 47:30
  Speaker 2: in the various semi arad districts as follows. Western juniper
• 47:35
  Speaker 2: in eastern Oregon and probably on the Snake River Plains,
• 47:39
  Speaker 2: Mountain juniper on the areas between the Rocky and bitter
• 47:43
  Speaker 2: Root Mountains, thus extending into the eastern Washington Plains. One
• 47:48
  Speaker 2: seated juniper on the Snake River Plains and along the
• 47:51
  Speaker 2: hills bordering this river valley nearly to its confluence with
• 47:55
  Speaker 2: the clear Water. The western juniper is the most abundant
• 47:59
  Speaker 2: of these species and forms true forests. It occurs as
• 48:03
  Speaker 2: close and absolutely pure stands in many localities. The most
• 48:08
  Speaker 2: extensive are found in Crook and Wasco Counties in Oregon,
• 48:12
  Speaker 2: where it covers areas of over one hundred square miles
• 48:16
  Speaker 2: with a stand twice as heavy as the ordinary stand
• 48:19
  Speaker 2: of yellow pine. In Oregon and Washington, outside of these
• 48:24
  Speaker 2: large tracts, the species occurs in small groves or aggregates,
• 48:29
  Speaker 2: or as scattered individuals throughout most of the plains regions
• 48:33
  Speaker 2: of eastern Oregon. These juniper forests exhibit clearly the second
• 48:38
  Speaker 2: period of the general phase of progressive extinction, that of
• 48:43
  Speaker 2: deficient reproductive capacity. The western juniper reaches large dimensions on
• 48:50
  Speaker 2: the eastern Oregon Plains. Individuals occur with basal diameters up
• 48:55
  Speaker 2: to six feet. It is a species of slow growth
• 48:59
  Speaker 2: centuries beul being required to produce such large trees. As
• 49:03
  Speaker 2: just noted. In examining the stand, one is struck by
• 49:07
  Speaker 2: the great preponderance of old trees, the comparatively small percentage
• 49:13
  Speaker 2: of young, and the marked deficiency of seedling or sapling growth.
• 49:18
  Speaker 2: It is noticeable that older trees produce enormous quantities of
• 49:23
  Speaker 2: galbols juniper berries, but on examination one finds that most
• 49:27
  Speaker 2: of them contain only aborted seeds. Round about the trees,
• 49:32
  Speaker 2: the ground is thickly strewn with berries, but the lack
• 49:35
  Speaker 2: of seedlings proves how few of the seeds possess germinating power,
• 49:40
  Speaker 2: and indicates that the general climatic conditions are not favorable
• 49:45
  Speaker 2: to seed germination. In many localities, extensive burns are found.
• 49:50
  Speaker 2: They have ravaged the edges of the forests or plowed
• 49:54
  Speaker 2: wide swaths through what were once very dense and uniform stands.
• 50:00
  Speaker 2: These burns are very old, the stumps, indicating that perhaps
• 50:03
  Speaker 2: a century or more has passed since the fires. Others
• 50:07
  Speaker 2: are comparatively recent. Reforestation does not take place on the
• 50:13
  Speaker 2: burned over areas, they become part of the adjacent arid
• 50:17
  Speaker 2: treeless tracts places occur in the midst of heavy stands,
• 50:22
  Speaker 2: entirely devoid of trees and stumps. It is probable that
• 50:26
  Speaker 2: they represent extremely ancient burns, showing that reforestation in the
• 50:32
  Speaker 2: juniper growth has practically ceased on areas contiguous to the
• 50:37
  Speaker 2: main body of aridity. It is not alone when fire
• 50:42
  Speaker 2: has swept the juniper forest out of existence that one
• 50:45
  Speaker 2: notices a lack of reforestation. It is also to be
• 50:50
  Speaker 2: seen adjacent to settlements where growth has been cut clean
• 50:54
  Speaker 2: for domestic uses, and the great number of detached groves
• 50:59
  Speaker 2: and scattered individuals dispersed over the plains are arguments in
• 51:04
  Speaker 2: the same general line. It is, of course impossible to
• 51:08
  Speaker 2: say with absolute certainty that all these outlying groups are
• 51:12
  Speaker 2: parts of a uniform juniper forest which once extended over
• 51:17
  Speaker 2: the entire plains regions of eastern Oregon. Yet from analogy
• 51:22
  Speaker 2: we are justified in concluding that such is the fact.
• 51:27
  Speaker 2: The fires and direct human agencies which are cutting into
• 51:31
  Speaker 2: the larger bodies of forest at the present time produce
• 51:35
  Speaker 2: just such detached groves and scattered individuals, and the gaps
• 51:41
  Speaker 2: give every promise of remaining permanently deforested. The forest of
• 51:46
  Speaker 2: western juniper extends up to the sub humid areas where
• 51:50
  Speaker 2: it meets the western yellow pine. It even goes beyond
• 51:55
  Speaker 2: a strict line of demarcation and penetrates several miles into
• 52:00
  Speaker 2: the yellow pine areas. It has been noticed that in
• 52:03
  Speaker 2: many places the juniper produces an abundance of fully developed
• 52:08
  Speaker 2: seeds and a plentiful supply of seedlings where it comes
• 52:12
  Speaker 2: in contact with the sub humid regions. Such would be
• 52:16
  Speaker 2: a natural result of the more favorable moisture conditions prevalent there.
• 52:22
  Speaker 2: Accompanying the front of the semi arid wave comes a
• 52:26
  Speaker 2: tree which, in these regions can endure neither the same
• 52:30
  Speaker 2: high degree of aridity as the juniper, nor so great
• 52:34
  Speaker 2: a humidity as the yellow pine. This is the mountain
• 52:38
  Speaker 2: Mahogany Circocarpus letifolius, which therefore furnishes an excellent indication of
• 52:43
  Speaker 2: the limits of the quasi semi arid and lower sub
• 52:48
  Speaker 2: humid conditions which mark the front of the semi arid
• 52:51
  Speaker 2: advance and the rear of the sub humid retreat. The Mountain.
• 52:56
  Speaker 2: Mahogany occurs therefore in numerous localities, all along the edge
• 53:00
  Speaker 2: of this debatable ground, and mingles not alone with the
• 53:04
  Speaker 2: yellow pine, but in many instances also with the lodgepole pine.
• 53:09
  Speaker 2: Ascending to elevations of seven thousand feet, crossing from the
• 53:14
  Speaker 2: eastern Oregon plains to those of the Snake in southern Idaho,
• 53:18
  Speaker 2: we find a growth of the one seated juniper Juniperus monosperma.
• 53:23
  Speaker 2: Comparatively little is known of the growth and distribution of
• 53:27
  Speaker 2: the junipers on the Snake River plains, but this species
• 53:31
  Speaker 2: is one which prevails largely on the arid regions in Utah,
• 53:35
  Speaker 2: and should perhaps be regarded as being pushed toward the
• 53:39
  Speaker 2: north through the stress of increasing aridity. Farther south, coming
• 53:44
  Speaker 2: into the interior Rocky Mountain region, we meet a juniper
• 53:48
  Speaker 2: much resembling the Virginia juniper or red cedar of the east.
• 53:52
  Speaker 2: It is the species named mountain Juniper uniforous scopulorum. A
• 53:57
  Speaker 2: small tree or shrub, it occupies more or less closely
• 54:02
  Speaker 2: the semi arid regions on the west slope of the range,
• 54:06
  Speaker 2: doubtless extending across the eastern declivities along the lines of
• 54:11
  Speaker 2: semi aridity. This juniper can endure a greater degree of
• 54:15
  Speaker 2: humidity than the other two species mentioned. So far as
• 54:19
  Speaker 2: it has come under my observation, it reproduces itself freely.
• 54:23
  Speaker 2: It has not yet encountered a stress of arid conditions
• 54:27
  Speaker 2: excessive enough to lower its seed producing capacity beyond the
• 54:31
  Speaker 2: balance point. It extends along various of the mountain streams
• 54:36
  Speaker 2: into the plains of eastern Washington, usually keeping close to
• 54:41
  Speaker 2: the streams. It does not spread into the open plateau
• 54:44
  Speaker 2: region of this state to any noticeable extent, indicating that
• 54:49
  Speaker 2: the semi aridity of the interior rocky mountain basins, where
• 54:53
  Speaker 2: the tree grows on hillsides and in valleys alike, is
• 54:57
  Speaker 2: not so intensive as on the open plain of eastern Washington.
• 55:03
  Speaker 2: The sub humid regions adjoining the region of semi aridity
• 55:08
  Speaker 2: lie the sub humid belts. Four species of conifers are
• 55:12
  Speaker 2: of common occurrence here. They are western yellow pine Pinus ponderosa,
• 55:18
  Speaker 2: red fur Sudatsuga, Mucronita, logepole pine Pinus muriana, and great
• 55:26
  Speaker 2: silver fur obvious grandis. Their endurance of dry soil and
• 55:31
  Speaker 2: climatic conditions is in the order named the yellow pine
• 55:35
  Speaker 2: ranking highest and the Great silverfur lowest in the scale.
• 55:40
  Speaker 2: The western yellow pine occurs generally throughout the entire sub
• 55:44
  Speaker 2: humid area in this region. In course of time, it
• 55:47
  Speaker 2: has succeeded in establishing a high degree of adaptability to
• 55:52
  Speaker 2: the desiccating climatic changes, and it therefore forms the extreme
• 55:57
  Speaker 2: rear of the coniferous growth in the sub humid belt,
• 56:01
  Speaker 2: receiving the full force of the oncoming semi iridity. While
• 56:06
  Speaker 2: the tree thus shows its drought resisting power, it is
• 56:10
  Speaker 2: erroneous to suppose that it has reached a stage of
• 56:13
  Speaker 2: adaptation where it absolutely requires dry regions for its development.
• 56:19
  Speaker 2: The heaviest stands of western yellow pine that have come
• 56:22
  Speaker 2: under my notice, varying from thirty thousand to fifty thousand
• 56:26
  Speaker 2: feet bm per acre, occur in small patches in the
• 56:30
  Speaker 2: Cellway basin of the Bitterroot Forest Reserve, where the precipitation
• 56:35
  Speaker 2: probably is not less than seventy or eighty inches per annum.
• 56:40
  Speaker 2: Where the species is found under such conditions, it is
• 56:44
  Speaker 2: fair to assume that it represents the more ancient form
• 56:48
  Speaker 2: capable of enduring more humid environments than the forms which
• 56:52
  Speaker 2: now make up the bulk of the species in these regions.
• 56:56
  Speaker 2: As a rule, however, the tree occupies the lower air
• 57:00
  Speaker 2: areas of the sub humid regions and is mostly of
• 57:03
  Speaker 2: open or scattered growth. Coming now to the effects of
• 57:08
  Speaker 2: semi aridity upon the growth of this species, we may
• 57:12
  Speaker 2: observe that, as a rule, it has not progressed far
• 57:15
  Speaker 2: enough to seriously affect its reproductive capacity over any very
• 57:21
  Speaker 2: large area. We find, however, where the species borders the
• 57:25
  Speaker 2: semi arid tracts of greatest intensity, or where here and
• 57:30
  Speaker 2: there long narrow tongues, lobes, or thin lines of it
• 57:34
  Speaker 2: project several miles from the main body of growth into them,
• 57:38
  Speaker 2: that in such localities the reproductive capacity of the tree
• 57:43
  Speaker 2: is exceedingly limited or altogether wanting. In other places, especially
• 57:49
  Speaker 2: in eastern Oregon, where a few small groves or single
• 57:53
  Speaker 2: trees are found crowning some isolated eminence, entirely cut off
• 57:58
  Speaker 2: from all direct connection with the species, elsewhere, the same
• 58:02
  Speaker 2: condition is noticeable and precisely, as is the case with
• 58:07
  Speaker 2: the western juniper, the ovules are generally unfertilized, or if fertilized,
• 58:13
  Speaker 2: most of them abort, and those that are fertile and
• 58:17
  Speaker 2: developed into perfect seeds fail to germinate. In consequence, seedlings
• 58:23
  Speaker 2: are rare or altogether lacking in such localities. One of
• 58:27
  Speaker 2: the phenomena noticeable in this species when much exposed to
• 58:32
  Speaker 2: the desiccating influences proceeding from contiguous arid tracts, is a
• 58:38
  Speaker 2: remarkable dwindling in its cone dimensions. Normally, in these regions,
• 58:44
  Speaker 2: the mature cones are from three to four inches in length,
• 58:48
  Speaker 2: but where the species occurs in proximity to the deforested
• 58:53
  Speaker 2: areas on the eastern Oregon Plains, the cones are frequently
• 58:57
  Speaker 2: not more than one and a half to two inches
• 58:59
  Speaker 2: in length. A most conspicuous example of this phenomenon are
• 59:04
  Speaker 2: the yellow pine forests on the northern slopes of the
• 59:08
  Speaker 2: Paulina Mountains, where thousands of individuals bear cones but a
• 59:12
  Speaker 2: trifle longer than those of the logepole pine, and the
• 59:16
  Speaker 2: cone dimensions of the entire growth are far below the normal.
• 59:21
  Speaker 2: As this tract of forest is separated only by a
• 59:25
  Speaker 2: narrow strip of semi aridity from areas of intense aridity,
• 59:30
  Speaker 2: it is naturally under a high stress of the latter
• 59:33
  Speaker 2: condition of climate, and the influence is fully warranted that
• 59:38
  Speaker 2: the decrease in cone dimensions is a forerunner to general
• 59:42
  Speaker 2: sterility in the species upon these particular areas. Going farther northward,
• 59:49
  Speaker 2: there are seen thousands of localities throughout the yellow pine
• 59:54
  Speaker 2: areas which are absolutely deforested or contain a few very
• 59:59
  Speaker 2: old life individuals. Some of these tracts consist of south
• 1:00:04
  Speaker 2: facing hillsides which receive the full force of the desiccating
• 1:00:09
  Speaker 2: rays of the sun. If they, in addition, possess a
• 1:00:13
  Speaker 2: high angle of slope, causing too rapid drainage, soil aridity
• 1:00:17
  Speaker 2: is likely to result with consequent deforestation, but many bare
• 1:00:23
  Speaker 2: tracks exist when soil aridity is not a factor, and
• 1:00:27
  Speaker 2: the influence which prevents the spread of the adjacent forest
• 1:00:31
  Speaker 2: into such areas must be climatic. So far as can
• 1:00:35
  Speaker 2: be determined, the middle and upper portions of the sub
• 1:00:40
  Speaker 2: humid belts carry, in addition to the yellow pine, the
• 1:00:43
  Speaker 2: other species enumerated. Two of them exhibit clear traces of
• 1:00:47
  Speaker 2: yielding to the effects of semiiridity. They are the great
• 1:00:52
  Speaker 2: silver fur and the red fur. The former is exceedingly
• 1:00:56
  Speaker 2: deficient in cone production, but yields a high high percentage
• 1:01:00
  Speaker 2: of seeds with germinating power. The latter is a free
• 1:01:04
  Speaker 2: cone producer, but matures an insignificant proportion of its ovules.
• 1:01:11
  Speaker 2: In this respect, it acts exactly similar to the western juniper.
• 1:01:16
  Speaker 2: The great silver fur possesses small powers of adaptability. On
• 1:01:21
  Speaker 2: the western spurs of the bitter roots, it has developed
• 1:01:24
  Speaker 2: a type of tree low, small in diameter, soft and
• 1:01:28
  Speaker 2: sappy in its wood, short lived, and with extremely scanty
• 1:01:33
  Speaker 2: cone production. This form takes a lower place in the
• 1:01:37
  Speaker 2: sub humid zone, that is to say, nearer to the
• 1:01:41
  Speaker 2: line of semi aridity than does the larger and more
• 1:01:44
  Speaker 2: fruitful type. The adaptability of the red fur is of
• 1:01:49
  Speaker 2: a much higher type than the foregoing. Notwithstanding its deficient
• 1:01:55
  Speaker 2: seed production, there is no evidence that it is not
• 1:01:59
  Speaker 2: maintaining the integrity of its stands throughout our region. It
• 1:02:04
  Speaker 2: is not confined to sub humid areas, exclusively thriving and
• 1:02:09
  Speaker 2: developing its largest dimensions in extremely humid situations on the
• 1:02:13
  Speaker 2: west slope of the Cascades. But in the region under
• 1:02:18
  Speaker 2: consideration it belongs to the sub humid areas, and as
• 1:02:23
  Speaker 2: before remarked, it is here deficient in seed production. A
• 1:02:27
  Speaker 2: factor enters here to be considered later. This is temperature conditions.
• 1:02:33
  Speaker 2: It is evident that unless a certain ratio of increase
• 1:02:37
  Speaker 2: in the mean annual temperature accompanies the aridity, there is
• 1:02:41
  Speaker 2: a limit of tolerance beyond which certain species cannot be forced.
• 1:02:47
  Speaker 2: When this limit is reached, the species must succumb, and
• 1:02:51
  Speaker 2: this is probably the reason why the red fur does
• 1:02:55
  Speaker 2: not push far into the humid areas in these regions.
• 1:02:59
  Speaker 2: The lodge pole pine possesses the highest power of adaptability
• 1:03:03
  Speaker 2: among the subhumid group of trees. It ranges from the
• 1:03:07
  Speaker 2: humid down through the subhumid and well into the lower
• 1:03:10
  Speaker 2: edge of the semi arid belts. While not a plentiful
• 1:03:14
  Speaker 2: producer of perfected seeds, most of the ovules aborting it
• 1:03:18
  Speaker 2: amply makes up for this deficiency by its magnitude of
• 1:03:22
  Speaker 2: cones and the early age at which it begins to
• 1:03:25
  Speaker 2: produce them. If the present vigor of the species continues,
• 1:03:30
  Speaker 2: it promises to become the dominant one on all subhumid
• 1:03:34
  Speaker 2: and humid areas in our region. In the subhumid forests
• 1:03:39
  Speaker 2: of eastern Oregon, along the lower slopes of the Cascades,
• 1:03:43
  Speaker 2: three species enter which are lacking farther north. They are
• 1:03:49
  Speaker 2: abeis concolor, white fur, librocedrus decurrens, incense cedar Pinus laperchiana
• 1:03:57
  Speaker 2: sugar pine. The fur, perhaps not specifically distinct from the
• 1:04:02
  Speaker 2: great silver fur, occupies the same general place in the
• 1:04:06
  Speaker 2: sub humid group of trees on the more southern areas
• 1:04:10
  Speaker 2: than the latter does on the northern. We might even
• 1:04:14
  Speaker 2: suppose that the great silver fur is a modification of
• 1:04:18
  Speaker 2: the white fur, evolved to meet changing temperature and humidity conditions.
• 1:04:23
  Speaker 2: It is evident from the relative position which the white
• 1:04:27
  Speaker 2: fur occupies that its limits of endurance to increased temperature
• 1:04:31
  Speaker 2: and lower humidity are far higher than those of the
• 1:04:35
  Speaker 2: great silver fur. The incense cedar and sugar pine come
• 1:04:40
  Speaker 2: into the middle areas of the sub humid belts. Their
• 1:04:44
  Speaker 2: distribution or retreat northward or into the humid areas is
• 1:04:49
  Speaker 2: limited by temperature considerations. As they show no adaptability to
• 1:04:54
  Speaker 2: meet them, their extension northward is precluded and their extinction
• 1:04:59
  Speaker 2: will be rapid compared with other species in this region.
• 1:05:03
  Speaker 2: The sugar pine is a free cone and seed producer,
• 1:05:07
  Speaker 2: while the incense seater appears to be deficient in this respect.
• 1:05:14
  Speaker 2: And of Section three, section four of the National Geographic Magazine,
• 1:05:26
  Speaker 2: Volume ten May eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording.
• 1:05:31
  Speaker 2: All LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more
• 1:05:34
  Speaker 2: information or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Is
• 1:05:41
  Speaker 2: climatic aridity impending on the Pacific Slope. Continued the humid regions.
• 1:05:50
  Speaker 2: From the sub humid tracks, we come to the humid ones.
• 1:05:54
  Speaker 2: These are chiefly limited to the mountain regions. When they
• 1:05:58
  Speaker 2: extend into the planes or in to areas of lower humidity,
• 1:06:02
  Speaker 2: they do so only in the bottoms or on the
• 1:06:05
  Speaker 2: northern slopes of deep canyons or the northern slopes of ridges.
• 1:06:10
  Speaker 2: On the other hand, it is everywhere noticeable that the
• 1:06:13
  Speaker 2: sub humid areas send long, strong lobes and extensions into
• 1:06:18
  Speaker 2: the humid tracts, carrying their characteristic trees with them and
• 1:06:23
  Speaker 2: indicating the coming ascendency of drier climatic conditions. The trees
• 1:06:29
  Speaker 2: which compose the forests in this zone group themselves into
• 1:06:33
  Speaker 2: three divisions according to their altitudinal range. The first group,
• 1:06:38
  Speaker 2: occupying the higher elevations, contains the following species larxis lei,
• 1:06:46
  Speaker 2: lyle larch Pinus albacolus, white bark pine, Suga patent ei
• 1:06:57
  Speaker 2: mountain hemlock, The second group contain species which most generally
• 1:07:03
  Speaker 2: occupy areas at the lowest elevations in the zone. They
• 1:07:07
  Speaker 2: are Fuja placata pacific arbor vitae, Laryx occidentalis, western larch,
• 1:07:19
  Speaker 2: Suga merten cyana, western hemlock, Pinus montecola, mountain white pine.
• 1:07:28
  Speaker 2: The third group contains species which range indiscriminately from the
• 1:07:33
  Speaker 2: upper to the lower areas of the humid zone and
• 1:07:37
  Speaker 2: are as follows a bees Laciocarpa, alpine fur i, Sea
• 1:07:46
  Speaker 2: engelmanni engelman spruce, Pinus muriana, lodgepole pine. Of the species
• 1:07:54
  Speaker 2: included in this group, the alpine fur possesses the least
• 1:07:58
  Speaker 2: power of adaptability, the law lodgepole pine the highest. In
• 1:08:02
  Speaker 2: addition to the species enumerated, there are the following whose
• 1:08:06
  Speaker 2: behavior as to altitudinal extensions and limitations are not very
• 1:08:11
  Speaker 2: thoroughly known. They are Libocedris decurrens incense, Cedar commi securis,
• 1:08:20
  Speaker 2: newt contensis, yellow cedar, Abby's Ambulus, ambulus fur Abby's nobless, noble,
• 1:08:29
  Speaker 2: fur Abby's Shistensus, shastafur, Pinus flexilis, limber pine, Pinus lambertiana,
• 1:08:40
  Speaker 2: sugar pine with the exception of the limber pine. Most
• 1:08:44
  Speaker 2: of these species are in these regions confined to the
• 1:08:48
  Speaker 2: cascades and do not extend very far from the high
• 1:08:52
  Speaker 2: upper slopes of the range. Only the sugar pine and
• 1:08:55
  Speaker 2: incense cedar come into contact with regions of sub humidity.
• 1:09:00
  Speaker 2: I have already noted that strong and broad projections from
• 1:09:04
  Speaker 2: the sub humid areas push far into the humid belts.
• 1:09:08
  Speaker 2: This is most marked along deeply eroded valleys where high
• 1:09:13
  Speaker 2: summer temperatures prevail. Not only do the sub humid conditions
• 1:09:17
  Speaker 2: become conspicuous in the humid belts along such lines, but
• 1:09:22
  Speaker 2: one meets occasionally spots of true aridity in their midst.
• 1:09:27
  Speaker 2: Such localities present the anomalous spectacle of permanently deforested areas
• 1:09:33
  Speaker 2: supporting species of grasses and other herbaceous plants peculiar to
• 1:09:38
  Speaker 2: the arid plains at subalpine altitudes and in regions where
• 1:09:43
  Speaker 2: the situation seemingly should ensure an abundance of precipitation. Excellent
• 1:09:50
  Speaker 2: examples of these phases are seen in the Bitter Root
• 1:09:53
  Speaker 2: Forest Reserve in Idaho. This region lies within an area
• 1:09:58
  Speaker 2: of sufficiently heavy percent scipitation to be generally classed as
• 1:10:02
  Speaker 2: humid above the five thousand feet level, but arid and
• 1:10:07
  Speaker 2: sub humid conditions have extended up the clear Water and
• 1:10:10
  Speaker 2: Salmon River valleys in places reaching the main range and
• 1:10:15
  Speaker 2: overleaping this barrier, have joined the arid regions of the
• 1:10:20
  Speaker 2: interior rocky mountain basins. The sub humid and semi arid
• 1:10:25
  Speaker 2: conditions have spread upward from the valley bottoms along the
• 1:10:29
  Speaker 2: mountain slopes to elevations of six thousand feet to seven
• 1:10:33
  Speaker 2: thousand feet, carrying their peculiar shrubs and trees with them.
• 1:10:38
  Speaker 2: We cannot account for the permanency of these arid and
• 1:10:42
  Speaker 2: semi arid extensions except by adopting the proposition that a
• 1:10:48
  Speaker 2: progressive diminution of the annual precipitation is now an established
• 1:10:53
  Speaker 2: and general climactic feature in this region, co existent with
• 1:10:59
  Speaker 2: the advance plants of drier climatic conditions into the humid areas.
• 1:11:03
  Speaker 2: We find, as already noted, many of the trees and
• 1:11:07
  Speaker 2: shrubs of the semi arid and sub humid tracts, while
• 1:11:11
  Speaker 2: the entire forest has been profoundly disturbed in its equilibrium
• 1:11:17
  Speaker 2: among the shrubs of the arid and semi arid regions
• 1:11:21
  Speaker 2: which have thus penetrated into the humid areas may be
• 1:11:25
  Speaker 2: mentioned Syricarpus, ledifolius, Cosnia, Tridentia Artismia, Tridentia, Artismia abuscula, and
• 1:11:37
  Speaker 2: one or two species of Forceelsia. These shrubs abound on
• 1:11:42
  Speaker 2: the arid regions of the plains to which they properly belong.
• 1:11:47
  Speaker 2: They are found following the sub humid areas into the
• 1:11:51
  Speaker 2: humid ones in the bitter roots, in the rocky mountains,
• 1:11:54
  Speaker 2: and in the cascades. Their presence and distribution here proves
• 1:11:59
  Speaker 2: unmista stakably progressive semi aridity into the sub humid tracts
• 1:12:04
  Speaker 2: subhumid extensions into the humid areas. In the semi arid belt,
• 1:12:10
  Speaker 2: we noted the occurrence of detached aggregates and scattered individuals
• 1:12:14
  Speaker 2: of its forest growth, separated from the main body by
• 1:12:18
  Speaker 2: deforested lanes and wide stretches. They were taken to represent
• 1:12:23
  Speaker 2: the effects of a gradual invasion of the adjacent arid conditions,
• 1:12:29
  Speaker 2: creating a sort of fringe or frayed edge of timber
• 1:12:32
  Speaker 2: growth along the edge of the forest. If our ideas
• 1:12:37
  Speaker 2: of progressively drier conditions extending throughout the different belts of
• 1:12:41
  Speaker 2: humidity are in accordance with facts, we have a right
• 1:12:45
  Speaker 2: to expect analogous phenomena in the humid and sub humid areas.
• 1:12:51
  Speaker 2: That is exactly what we find, but they differ from
• 1:12:55
  Speaker 2: those which exist in the arid and semi arid region
• 1:12:58
  Speaker 2: in this way that the edge of the advancing semi
• 1:13:02
  Speaker 2: iridity into the sub humid tracts and the front of
• 1:13:07
  Speaker 2: the sub humidity where it penetrates into the humid areas
• 1:13:11
  Speaker 2: are not typically marked by deforested openings. Instead, they present
• 1:13:17
  Speaker 2: detached groups of the species which belong to the upper
• 1:13:21
  Speaker 2: and more humid tracts of each of the zones, entirely
• 1:13:25
  Speaker 2: surrounded by heavy bodies of the kinds which belong to
• 1:13:29
  Speaker 2: the lower zones and which are capable of withstanding greater dryness.
• 1:13:35
  Speaker 2: In examining the phenomena of forest growth in the humid
• 1:13:38
  Speaker 2: areas as changed or in process of modification by the
• 1:13:43
  Speaker 2: shifting climatic conditions, we can find no localities within these
• 1:13:48
  Speaker 2: regions that present the various phases so clearly and indisputably
• 1:13:53
  Speaker 2: as does the west slope of the Bitter Root Mountains.
• 1:13:57
  Speaker 2: This area is truly a debatable ground. Its forest growth
• 1:14:03
  Speaker 2: is subject to great and extensive stress on the east
• 1:14:07
  Speaker 2: from the arid conditions of the rocky mountain regions. On
• 1:14:11
  Speaker 2: the west, from those which prevail on the treeless plains
• 1:14:15
  Speaker 2: of the Columbia River Plateau. It is seamed, furrowed, and
• 1:14:20
  Speaker 2: crossed in various places by extensions from those two great tracts.
• 1:14:25
  Speaker 2: At the same time, it contains very large areas of
• 1:14:29
  Speaker 2: extremely humid slopes where the drying effects of the changing
• 1:14:34
  Speaker 2: climate are as yet scarcely felt, if at all. These
• 1:14:39
  Speaker 2: conditions provide numerous transition grounds for the study of the
• 1:14:44
  Speaker 2: forest modifications. Beginning with the group of summit trees, as
• 1:14:48
  Speaker 2: they might be called, we have three species which are
• 1:14:52
  Speaker 2: in the Pacific Northwest true timberline trees. Nowhere, however, in
• 1:14:57
  Speaker 2: the bitter roots do these species four a timberline zone,
• 1:15:02
  Speaker 2: for no peak in the range is high enough to
• 1:15:04
  Speaker 2: reach it. As summits exist ten thousand, one hundred and
• 1:15:09
  Speaker 2: fifty feet in height above sea level, it follows that
• 1:15:12
  Speaker 2: the absolute timber line is here phenomenally high, a significant
• 1:15:18
  Speaker 2: fact in connection with the wide extensions of sub humid
• 1:15:22
  Speaker 2: and semi arid conditions into the interior of this range,
• 1:15:27
  Speaker 2: and a possible consequent rise of the mean annual temperature.
• 1:15:32
  Speaker 2: The absence of a timberline even at the highest peaks
• 1:15:36
  Speaker 2: was noted and commented upon by the various parties engaged
• 1:15:41
  Speaker 2: in the first surveys for a northern transcontinental railroad route,
• 1:15:46
  Speaker 2: but was generally ascribed to the effects produced by a
• 1:15:50
  Speaker 2: current of warm air supposed to move eastward from the
• 1:15:55
  Speaker 2: plains of the Columbia. In this latitude, none of the
• 1:15:59
  Speaker 2: three species contained in the Summit group of trees possesses
• 1:16:03
  Speaker 2: any marked power of adaptation. The lyle larch is wholly
• 1:16:08
  Speaker 2: deficient in this respect. The white bark pine ranks slightly higher,
• 1:16:13
  Speaker 2: and the mountain hemlocks somewhat above the latter, as shown
• 1:16:17
  Speaker 2: by its occurrence within undoubted sub humid conditions in some localities,
• 1:16:23
  Speaker 2: as in the middle portion of the Dashutees Basin in Oregon.
• 1:16:28
  Speaker 2: In the bitter Roots, we find the lyle larch along
• 1:16:32
  Speaker 2: the high crests of the main range from a point
• 1:16:36
  Speaker 2: just north of Nespier's Pass to and as yet undetermined
• 1:16:40
  Speaker 2: northern point. However, it does not go very far beyond
• 1:16:45
  Speaker 2: the ridges which bound the north Fork of Clearwater Basin.
• 1:16:49
  Speaker 2: It is found on both the east and west slopes
• 1:16:53
  Speaker 2: of the range, extending three to four miles away from
• 1:16:56
  Speaker 2: the crest. On either side of the range present one
• 1:17:02
  Speaker 2: or two outlying small groves of the species on the
• 1:17:05
  Speaker 2: divide between the lock Saw and Cellway forks. Its habitats
• 1:17:10
  Speaker 2: in the Bitterroot range are absolutely cut off from all
• 1:17:14
  Speaker 2: connection with others elsewhere by gaps of low altitudes one
• 1:17:19
  Speaker 2: hundred miles or more in width, which now cannot possibly
• 1:17:23
  Speaker 2: be spanned by the species in these regions. This large
• 1:17:27
  Speaker 2: is clearly approaching extinction. Its cone and seed production are
• 1:17:33
  Speaker 2: extremely scanty. Its growth is excessively slow. Most of the
• 1:17:38
  Speaker 2: individuals which make up the stands are far advanced in age.
• 1:17:43
  Speaker 2: Seedlings or saplings are rare and scattered. No farther back
• 1:17:48
  Speaker 2: than three centuries. There must have been abundant seed production,
• 1:17:53
  Speaker 2: as a majority of the trees are approximately of this
• 1:17:57
  Speaker 2: age three centuries. Hence, the stands, if existing at all,
• 1:18:02
  Speaker 2: will show great diversity of age, unless the cone bearing
• 1:18:07
  Speaker 2: periods run in cycles, long intervals of barrenness being followed
• 1:18:12
  Speaker 2: by periods of fertility. Whatever rotation may exist in this respect,
• 1:18:18
  Speaker 2: and that some does occur, admits of no doubt it
• 1:18:22
  Speaker 2: operates only within narrow limits of time, producing what are
• 1:18:27
  Speaker 2: called off years, and does not impress itself very strongly
• 1:18:31
  Speaker 2: upon the stand of the species as a whole. Passing
• 1:18:36
  Speaker 2: to the white bark pine, we find it extending all
• 1:18:39
  Speaker 2: over the ridges and spurs of the bitter Roots, having
• 1:18:42
  Speaker 2: elevations above six thousand feet. On the north, the range
• 1:18:46
  Speaker 2: of trees is intercepted by the valleys of the Clark
• 1:18:49
  Speaker 2: Fork and the Bitterroot River. On the south, it follows
• 1:18:53
  Speaker 2: the crest of the ridges into the rocky mountains. The
• 1:18:57
  Speaker 2: species is lacking in vigor and is now not maintaining
• 1:19:00
  Speaker 2: its former stands. It is a conspicuously shy cone producer.
• 1:19:06
  Speaker 2: Throughout all this region. The staminate blossoms or aments are
• 1:19:11
  Speaker 2: borne in the greatest profusion, but the pistolate are very rare.
• 1:19:16
  Speaker 2: In consequence, but few cones are seen, and the seedlings,
• 1:19:20
  Speaker 2: while not wholly absent, are very sparse and scattered. The
• 1:19:25
  Speaker 2: mountain hemlock occurs on the ridges above five thousand, five
• 1:19:28
  Speaker 2: hundred feet elevation Throughout the central areas of the bitter
• 1:19:32
  Speaker 2: Root system. It is cut off on all sides from
• 1:19:36
  Speaker 2: connection with the species elsewhere by wide stretches where it
• 1:19:41
  Speaker 2: is wholly lacking. In the northern portion of its range.
• 1:19:45
  Speaker 2: It is an abundant cone and seed producer and is
• 1:19:48
  Speaker 2: maintaining the average densities of its stands. Its southern boundary
• 1:19:53
  Speaker 2: in this region lies along the crest which separates the
• 1:19:58
  Speaker 2: North and middle forks of clear Water. All along this
• 1:20:02
  Speaker 2: southern edge it abuts upon the sub humid tracts which
• 1:20:07
  Speaker 2: spread upwards along the slopes of the low lying valley
• 1:20:11
  Speaker 2: of the middle or Locksaw Fork of the clear Water.
• 1:20:16
  Speaker 2: A low ratio of cone and seed bearing capacity marks
• 1:20:20
  Speaker 2: the southern edge of its range, and its seedlings are
• 1:20:23
  Speaker 2: far from sufficient in number to keep the stands at
• 1:20:27
  Speaker 2: their maximum density throughout the entire bitter region. The declining
• 1:20:33
  Speaker 2: vitality of the species is indicated by its small cones,
• 1:20:37
  Speaker 2: which do not average one half of the normal size
• 1:20:41
  Speaker 2: for the more vigorous type of the species. The habit
• 1:20:44
  Speaker 2: of the three summit species is inimical to survival under
• 1:20:48
  Speaker 2: very great stress of sub humidity. Their place of growth
• 1:20:53
  Speaker 2: is invariably on drained slopes. If through adaptation they should
• 1:20:58
  Speaker 2: acquire the power to grow in wet or saturated soil,
• 1:21:02
  Speaker 2: they would stand a far better chance of survival, but
• 1:21:05
  Speaker 2: no evidence exists of any such modifications. Below the summit
• 1:21:10
  Speaker 2: group of trees are the species of the second group.
• 1:21:13
  Speaker 2: Among these, the western larch possesses the greatest power of adaptation,
• 1:21:18
  Speaker 2: next the mountain white pine, and then the Pacific arbor vitae,
• 1:21:23
  Speaker 2: and last the western hemlock. The western larch is able
• 1:21:27
  Speaker 2: to endure sub humid conditions, which in places almost border
• 1:21:32
  Speaker 2: on semi aridity. Of the trees distinctly belonging to the
• 1:21:36
  Speaker 2: humid areas, it is the last to retreat before the
• 1:21:40
  Speaker 2: advancing line of climatic cication. All these species are at
• 1:21:45
  Speaker 2: home in wet or swampy localities, and are therefore better
• 1:21:50
  Speaker 2: fitted for a lengthy resistance than would otherwise be the case.
• 1:21:54
  Speaker 2: Their northward range extends indefinitely to the limits where the
• 1:21:59
  Speaker 2: mean temperature becomes too low for their growth. Their southward
• 1:22:03
  Speaker 2: boundary in the Bitterroot region lies a few miles north
• 1:22:07
  Speaker 2: of a line drawn east and west through the crest
• 1:22:10
  Speaker 2: of the divide which separates the Salmon River from the
• 1:22:14
  Speaker 2: clear Water Drainage. Northeastward, they cross the Bitter Roots into
• 1:22:18
  Speaker 2: the Rocky Mountain Ranges, while in the northwest they extend
• 1:22:22
  Speaker 2: through the mountains between the Fraser River and the Columbia
• 1:22:26
  Speaker 2: into the Cascades. Owing to the circumstances already mentioned that
• 1:22:31
  Speaker 2: the species can exist in swampy ground, they hold their
• 1:22:35
  Speaker 2: own against the sub humid encroachments everywhere but along their
• 1:22:40
  Speaker 2: southern edge. Their retreat here is marked exactly as in
• 1:22:45
  Speaker 2: the case of other species, by deficient cone and seed production,
• 1:22:50
  Speaker 2: and by the occurrence of detached bodies of the species
• 1:22:54
  Speaker 2: along the line of retreat. The third group of the
• 1:22:59
  Speaker 2: humid series of trees contains species whose adaptability to varying
• 1:23:03
  Speaker 2: altitude and moisture conditions is of the highest. This is
• 1:23:07
  Speaker 2: owing to their capacity for enduring very diverse habitats. They
• 1:23:13
  Speaker 2: are equally at home on dry, well drained slopes or
• 1:23:17
  Speaker 2: in wet places where their roots are continually immersed in
• 1:23:21
  Speaker 2: circulating water. Among the three, the lodgepole pine has the
• 1:23:26
  Speaker 2: greatest endurance, and all appearances indicate that it is the
• 1:23:30
  Speaker 2: species which eventually will supplant the other species in the
• 1:23:35
  Speaker 2: humid regions. The alpine fir ranges throughout the entire extent
• 1:23:40
  Speaker 2: of the bitter Root Mountains and extends indefinitely north and
• 1:23:44
  Speaker 2: southeast and west along the crests of connecting ridges. It
• 1:23:49
  Speaker 2: is a fair producer of cones and seeds, and is
• 1:23:52
  Speaker 2: maintaining its stands in most localities. Its susceptibility to adverse
• 1:23:58
  Speaker 2: sub humid conditions is found in the occurrence of large
• 1:24:02
  Speaker 2: deforested tracts occupied by the tree within comparatively recent times,
• 1:24:07
  Speaker 2: but which now show no evidence of a return to
• 1:24:10
  Speaker 2: forest cover. Such tracks are frequent everywhere throughout its range.
• 1:24:15
  Speaker 2: In these regions. Generally they front on some broad valley
• 1:24:20
  Speaker 2: along whose slopes the sub humid or semi arid changes
• 1:24:24
  Speaker 2: are advancing into the mountains. The Engleman spruce and the
• 1:24:29
  Speaker 2: lodgepole pine have a universal range throughout the mountains in
• 1:24:33
  Speaker 2: this region. Both have developed forms to meet drier conditions.
• 1:24:37
  Speaker 2: Engleman spruce never reaches its greatest development except in swampy localities,
• 1:24:43
  Speaker 2: where it grows to be a large, well formed tree.
• 1:24:47
  Speaker 2: On dry ridges, it exists as a small, knotty, branchy,
• 1:24:51
  Speaker 2: undersized tree. The lodgepole pine follows the same general rule.
• 1:24:56
  Speaker 2: The reproduction of these two species is excellent, and they
• 1:25:00
  Speaker 2: are constantly occupying new ground to the exclusion of the
• 1:25:05
  Speaker 2: other species. The forest fires which ravage the mountains show
• 1:25:10
  Speaker 2: how closely balanced are the majority of the humid species
• 1:25:14
  Speaker 2: and how slim a hold they possess on existence along
• 1:25:17
  Speaker 2: the front line of the spreading sub humidity. It is
• 1:25:21
  Speaker 2: a fact patent to everyone who studies the after effect
• 1:25:25
  Speaker 2: of a forest fire in this region that the increased
• 1:25:28
  Speaker 2: evaporation from the denuded surfaces causes intense soil aridity. This
• 1:25:34
  Speaker 2: condition is not alike in all places. Some localities, by
• 1:25:39
  Speaker 2: reasons of local topography or exposure, suffer more severely than others.
• 1:25:44
  Speaker 2: There are, thus, on south facing hillsides near the larger valleys,
• 1:25:49
  Speaker 2: numerous places where centuries ago the subalpine forest was destroyed
• 1:25:54
  Speaker 2: by fire and arid conditions set in to the extent
• 1:25:58
  Speaker 2: of absolutely preventing reforestation to this day. But in the
• 1:26:03
  Speaker 2: majority of cases, the first burning of the forest destroys
• 1:26:06
  Speaker 2: only the more tender species and favors the growth of
• 1:26:10
  Speaker 2: those which possess greater powers of adaptability. This in the
• 1:26:15
  Speaker 2: humid areas means a preponderance of the lodgepole pine. Because
• 1:26:19
  Speaker 2: of its wide limit of tolerance to different climatic conditions.
• 1:26:24
  Speaker 2: Fires in the humid gross hardly ever destroy the forest
• 1:26:28
  Speaker 2: completely over any very large area. Small patches are left untouched,
• 1:26:33
  Speaker 2: though surrounded by wide lanes of burned forest. The growth
• 1:26:38
  Speaker 2: of lodgepole pine, which comes in after the fires, because
• 1:26:41
  Speaker 2: better fitted than any other species to endure soil aridity,
• 1:26:46
  Speaker 2: follows the denuded areas and often covers them with dense stands.
• 1:26:51
  Speaker 2: In so doing, it cuts off these slices of unburned
• 1:26:55
  Speaker 2: forests from all chance of regaining their former connection with
• 1:27:00
  Speaker 2: the main body of their own type of growth, and
• 1:27:03
  Speaker 2: gives rise to conditions which are somewhat analogous to those
• 1:27:07
  Speaker 2: in the semi arid belts, where the forested areas supporting
• 1:27:12
  Speaker 2: types of vegetation peculiar to arid regions separate the outlying
• 1:27:17
  Speaker 2: groves of forest. It is not alone in the region
• 1:27:21
  Speaker 2: of the Columbia River Watershed that the increasing climatic aridity
• 1:27:26
  Speaker 2: is modifying or disturbing the forest types and their ancient balance.
• 1:27:31
  Speaker 2: The same phenomena are repeated in California and are doubtless
• 1:27:36
  Speaker 2: general throughout the Rocky Mountains and the areas collectively termed
• 1:27:40
  Speaker 2: the Pacific Coast. A conspicuous example occurs in southern California
• 1:27:46
  Speaker 2: in the behavior of the big cone fur Pseudosuga Macrocarpa
• 1:27:52
  Speaker 2: and the redwood Sequoia sempavirons. The big cone fur is
• 1:27:56
  Speaker 2: a common species on the slopes of the Mountain ranges
• 1:27:59
  Speaker 2: in southern California, on the west slopes of the San
• 1:28:04
  Speaker 2: Bernardino and San Jacinto Ranges. Its main body of growth
• 1:28:08
  Speaker 2: is above the four thousand feet contour line. Below this,
• 1:28:12
  Speaker 2: the tree thins out rapidly, and at elevations of three
• 1:28:15
  Speaker 2: thousand feet practically ceases. In the San Gabriel Mountains, it
• 1:28:20
  Speaker 2: begins to grow at elevations of one thousand feet above
• 1:28:23
  Speaker 2: sea level. At three thousand feet it forms very numerous
• 1:28:27
  Speaker 2: groves in the midst of the chaparral. Now there are
• 1:28:30
  Speaker 2: the clearest evidences that not very far back in time,
• 1:28:34
  Speaker 2: a nearly uniform forest of this species covered many of
• 1:28:39
  Speaker 2: the slopes of the San Gabriel Mountains between the two
• 1:28:43
  Speaker 2: thousand feet and three thousand feet contour levels. The numerous
• 1:28:47
  Speaker 2: single trees and old stumps in the chaparral are the
• 1:28:51
  Speaker 2: remnants of this growth. Moreover, when the big cone fur
• 1:28:55
  Speaker 2: is burned out on the slopes below the four thousand
• 1:28:59
  Speaker 2: feet level, neither it nor any other species of conifers
• 1:29:03
  Speaker 2: reforest the denuded areas, showing that conditions exist which are
• 1:29:08
  Speaker 2: inimical to forest growth. In the Sand Bernardino and San
• 1:29:13
  Speaker 2: Jacinto ranges. The lower edge of the Big Cone Fur
• 1:29:16
  Speaker 2: forest is tolerably compact and well defined. The outlying patches
• 1:29:21
  Speaker 2: on the slopes that one sees so frequently in the
• 1:29:24
  Speaker 2: Sand gabrielle are lacking. The extensions from the main body
• 1:29:29
  Speaker 2: of growth are along the streams and gorges where abundant
• 1:29:33
  Speaker 2: moisture exists. The Sand Bernardino and San Jacinto Mountains are
• 1:29:37
  Speaker 2: farther from the ocean than the Sand Gabriel Hence, for
• 1:29:42
  Speaker 2: the same elevations, they do not receive so heavy a
• 1:29:45
  Speaker 2: precipitation and have inconsequence a higher limit for the lower
• 1:29:50
  Speaker 2: edge of the range of the Big Cone Fur. The
• 1:29:54
  Speaker 2: Sand Gabriel Mountains, being nearer the ocean, receive a greater precipitation,
• 1:29:59
  Speaker 2: hence half an ulterior limit for the inferior edge of
• 1:30:03
  Speaker 2: the Big Cone Fur at a considerably lower elevation than
• 1:30:07
  Speaker 2: the other two ranges. But the lack of reforestation on
• 1:30:11
  Speaker 2: areas where the growth is destroyed and the many detached
• 1:30:15
  Speaker 2: patches below the main body of growth prove that the
• 1:30:19
  Speaker 2: species is retreating toward regions of greater humidity. As the
• 1:30:25
  Speaker 2: process is aided and accelerated by forest fires of modern date,
• 1:30:30
  Speaker 2: Another generation will not pass before the lower limit for
• 1:30:34
  Speaker 2: the growth of the tree in the San Gabriel Mountains
• 1:30:37
  Speaker 2: will be at quite as high altitude as it is
• 1:30:41
  Speaker 2: in the San Bernardino and San Jacinto Ranges. In comparison
• 1:30:45
  Speaker 2: with the allied Northern Suda makritata or red fur, the
• 1:30:51
  Speaker 2: species is more definite in cone and seed production. The
• 1:30:56
  Speaker 2: redwood is a tree of extreme susceptibility to temper in
• 1:31:00
  Speaker 2: humidity conditions and apparently possesses a very low ratio of adaptability.
• 1:31:07
  Speaker 2: It ranges along the California coast from Los Angeles County
• 1:31:11
  Speaker 2: to the northern boundary of the state and across into Oregon.
• 1:31:15
  Speaker 2: At its extreme southern end, it is represented by small,
• 1:31:20
  Speaker 2: scattered groups of trees. A few hundred individuals only are reported,
• 1:31:24
  Speaker 2: and the long gap intervenes before its appearance. Farther north.
• 1:31:29
  Speaker 2: The heaviest stands of the species are found in Mendocino
• 1:31:33
  Speaker 2: and Humboldt Counties in California. It thins out toward the
• 1:31:37
  Speaker 2: Oregon line and finally disappears a few miles north of
• 1:31:41
  Speaker 2: the boundary. The northward extension of the species is evidently
• 1:31:46
  Speaker 2: limited by a mean annual temperature lower than its ultimate
• 1:31:50
  Speaker 2: point of endurance. Southern extensions are impossible owing to an
• 1:31:55
  Speaker 2: insufficiency of rainfall in that section of California, and it
• 1:32:00
  Speaker 2: spread into the interior away from the proximity of the
• 1:32:03
  Speaker 2: ocean is precluded by adverse conditions of both temperature and humidity.
• 1:32:10
  Speaker 2: The reproduction of the species is said to be very low.
• 1:32:14
  Speaker 2: Cutover areas show no evidence of reforestation. With the same
• 1:32:19
  Speaker 2: species thus hemmed in by inimical climatic conditions and unable
• 1:32:24
  Speaker 2: to maintain its stands, its extinction seems assured at no
• 1:32:29
  Speaker 2: very remote period. Summary the salient points brought out by
• 1:32:37
  Speaker 2: a study of the forest conditions in these regions, so
• 1:32:41
  Speaker 2: far as they relate to the effects of climatic aridity,
• 1:32:44
  Speaker 2: can be stated concisely as follows. The arid non forested
• 1:32:50
  Speaker 2: plains regions of eastern Oregon yield solicified remains of arborescent
• 1:32:56
  Speaker 2: vegetation identical or nearly so with exact listing species on
• 1:33:01
  Speaker 2: adjacent areas, proving the presence of forest growth on these
• 1:33:06
  Speaker 2: timberless lands at no very remote period. The forests on
• 1:33:11
  Speaker 2: the semi arid tracts, although consisting of species capable of
• 1:33:15
  Speaker 2: enduring dry climatic conditions, show everywhere a persistent and gradual
• 1:33:21
  Speaker 2: dwindling in extent and density. Their stands, consisting mostly of
• 1:33:26
  Speaker 2: old trees, show a conspicuous deficiency in seed production, an
• 1:33:31
  Speaker 2: enormous percentage of the ovules aborting, and a notable scarcity
• 1:33:36
  Speaker 2: of seedlings. When from any cause a tract of the
• 1:33:41
  Speaker 2: old stands is deforested, reforestation does not occur as a rule.
• 1:33:46
  Speaker 2: This results in the formation of detached groves and individuals
• 1:33:51
  Speaker 2: whose reproductive powers become even more limited and weakened, and
• 1:33:56
  Speaker 2: the extinction of which is merely a matterding on the
• 1:34:00
  Speaker 2: age limit of the individual trees. In the sub humid forest,
• 1:34:07
  Speaker 2: there is a slow and apparently ineffectual adaptation evolution of
• 1:34:11
  Speaker 2: smaller forms of the various species to replace the larger
• 1:34:16
  Speaker 2: ones which require more moisture for their growth. There is
• 1:34:20
  Speaker 2: also a conspicuous shortage of cone and seed production in
• 1:34:25
  Speaker 2: the group of trees which form the upper sub humid types,
• 1:34:29
  Speaker 2: and a pushing of the lower sub humid types which
• 1:34:32
  Speaker 2: grow in drier atmospheric and soil conditions into the areas
• 1:34:37
  Speaker 2: of the upper types, and frequently a complete and permanent
• 1:34:41
  Speaker 2: replacement of the upper sub humid types with those belonging
• 1:34:46
  Speaker 2: to the lower groups when the upper types have been
• 1:34:49
  Speaker 2: destroyed by fire or other means. In the humid forest
• 1:34:54
  Speaker 2: are found the same phenomena as noted for the sub
• 1:34:57
  Speaker 2: humid tracts, with areas in the the upper humid belts
• 1:35:01
  Speaker 2: where certain species occupy tracks separated by long distances, sometimes
• 1:35:07
  Speaker 2: one hundred miles or more from the next appearance of
• 1:35:10
  Speaker 2: the species elsewhere. These intervals, which break the continuity of
• 1:35:15
  Speaker 2: the range of such species are held to indicate more
• 1:35:19
  Speaker 2: humid conditions in the part, favoring extensions across these gaps,
• 1:35:24
  Speaker 2: which are now precluded and cut off by adverse climactic
• 1:35:29
  Speaker 2: changes in the direction of aridity. End of section four.
• 1:35:42
  Speaker 3: Section five of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten May
• 1:35:48
  Speaker 3: eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
• 1:35:52
  Speaker 3: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 1:35:56
  Speaker 3: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Betty B.
• 1:36:02
  Speaker 3: Professor O. C. Marsh Othniel Charles marsh Lld, PhD, Professor
• 1:36:09
  Speaker 3: of Paleontology in Yale University. Vertebrate paleontologist of the US
• 1:36:15
  Speaker 3: Geological Survey and a member of the National Geographic Society,
• 1:36:20
  Speaker 3: died in New Haven, Connecticut, March eighteenth, eighteen ninety nine.
• 1:36:24
  Speaker 3: His death removes an eminent contributor to American science. Born
• 1:36:28
  Speaker 3: in Lockport, New York, October twenty ninth, eighteen thirty one,
• 1:36:33
  Speaker 3: Marsh grew up an athlete and sportsman rather than student,
• 1:36:37
  Speaker 3: until his observations on nature directed his attention to the
• 1:36:41
  Speaker 3: natural sciences. In eighteen fifty two, he went to the
• 1:36:44
  Speaker 3: Phillips Exeter Academy at Andover, whence he graduated as the
• 1:36:49
  Speaker 3: valedictorian of his class. In eighteen fifty six, he matriculated
• 1:36:54
  Speaker 3: at Yale, graduating with honors in eighteen sixty. Subsequently, he
• 1:36:58
  Speaker 3: retained almost constant connection with his alma mater, to whose
• 1:37:02
  Speaker 3: prestige he contributed much, the longest interruption occurring in the
• 1:37:07
  Speaker 3: early sixties, when he was engaged in special work in
• 1:37:11
  Speaker 3: European universities. In eighteen sixty six, he was made professor
• 1:37:15
  Speaker 3: of Paleontology, a position retained until his death. The nephew
• 1:37:20
  Speaker 3: and heir of George Peabody, he was the possessor of means,
• 1:37:24
  Speaker 3: enabling him to exercise his strong individuality freely in the
• 1:37:29
  Speaker 3: prosecution of scientific researches. His best known work was that
• 1:37:34
  Speaker 3: of explorer in the Western Territories and collector of vertebrate fossils,
• 1:37:39
  Speaker 3: by which the Museum of Yale and US National Museum
• 1:37:43
  Speaker 3: were enriched. Yet his most enduring monument takes the form
• 1:37:47
  Speaker 3: of original contributions to vertebrate paleontology. His researches were conducted
• 1:37:53
  Speaker 3: with remarkable vigor, notable acumen, and exceptionally clear recognition of
• 1:37:59
  Speaker 3: the principles of biology. To the general surveyor of the
• 1:38:03
  Speaker 3: field of organic life past and present, several of Professor
• 1:38:07
  Speaker 3: Marsh's contributions seemed to be of the first magnitude. The
• 1:38:12
  Speaker 3: modern method of seeking and quarrying for complete skeletons to
• 1:38:17
  Speaker 3: be used as material for study in lieu of resting
• 1:38:20
  Speaker 3: content with fragments was largely due to his broad views
• 1:38:24
  Speaker 3: and pertinacious industry and his liberal expenditure of private means.
• 1:38:30
  Speaker 3: Partly by reason of this method, he was able to
• 1:38:33
  Speaker 3: classify extinct forms and trace their relations to living organisms
• 1:38:38
  Speaker 3: in a superior manner. While his improved methods in field
• 1:38:42
  Speaker 3: and laboratory enabled him to give unprecedented vitality and living
• 1:38:47
  Speaker 3: interest to the animals of ages past and the life
• 1:38:51
  Speaker 3: history of the Earth primeval. Among his special contributions, the
• 1:38:56
  Speaker 3: tracing of the phylogeny of the horse attracted worldwide attention,
• 1:39:01
  Speaker 3: while his development of the principle of cephalization is of
• 1:39:05
  Speaker 3: exceeding service to biologists and anthropologists, as well as to
• 1:39:10
  Speaker 3: specialists in his own domain. During the last decade he
• 1:39:14
  Speaker 3: turned attention to geology, and his researches in the Atlantic
• 1:39:18
  Speaker 3: coastal Plain have received much attention and yielded results of
• 1:39:22
  Speaker 3: permanent value. Professor Marsh's scientific work brought recognition from various institutions.
• 1:39:29
  Speaker 3: He held honorary connection with several European Academies of Science,
• 1:39:34
  Speaker 3: and was the recipient of the Cuvier Prize of the
• 1:39:37
  Speaker 3: Institute of France and of the Bixby Medal of the
• 1:39:40
  Speaker 3: Geological Society of London. He was president of the American
• 1:39:44
  Speaker 3: Association for the Advancement of Science in eighteen seventy eight
• 1:39:49
  Speaker 3: and president of the National Academy of Sciences for twelve
• 1:39:52
  Speaker 3: years eighteen eighty three to eighteen ninety five. A bachelor
• 1:39:57
  Speaker 3: and the last of his line. He bequeathed practically the
• 1:40:00
  Speaker 3: whole of his considerable property to Yale University w JM.
• 1:40:08
  Speaker 3: End of Section.
• 1:40:09
  Speaker 4: Five, Section six of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten
• 1:40:20
  Speaker 4: May eighteen ninety nine. This is a liberyvox recording or
• 1:40:25
  Speaker 4: liberyvox recordings are in the public domain. For more information
• 1:40:29
  Speaker 4: or to volunteer, please visit liberyvox dot org. The area
• 1:40:34
  Speaker 4: of the Philippines. In a recent communication to the Geographical
• 1:40:40
  Speaker 4: Society of Pacific, of which he is President, Professor George
• 1:40:45
  Speaker 4: Davidson writes as follows. In several government documents, the statement
• 1:40:52
  Speaker 4: is made that the area of the Philippine Islands is
• 1:40:55
  Speaker 4: something over one hundred and fourteen thousand square miles. In
• 1:41:01
  Speaker 4: the latest one just received, it is given as one
• 1:41:05
  Speaker 4: hundred and fourteen thousand, three hundred and twenty six. This
• 1:41:10
  Speaker 4: error has doubtless arisen from a hurried examination of the
• 1:41:14
  Speaker 4: Spanish documents. We find in the Guia Officiale de LASiS
• 1:41:20
  Speaker 4: las Philippinas Para eighteen ninety eight Publicada Paula Secretaria del
• 1:41:27
  Speaker 4: Gobiero General, Manila, eighteen ninety eight, the statement that the
• 1:41:34
  Speaker 4: archipelago comprises an area of three hundred and fifty five
• 1:41:39
  Speaker 4: thousand square kilometers without including the Jolo or Sulu group.
• 1:41:45
  Speaker 4: It then specifies about thirty of the principal islands and
• 1:41:49
  Speaker 4: their areas aggregate two hundred and ninety eight thousand, four
• 1:41:54
  Speaker 4: hundred and eighty five square kilometers. That, of course, the
• 1:42:00
  Speaker 4: a multitude of the smaller islands not specified in the
• 1:42:04
  Speaker 4: guide but covered by the larger area. As the number
• 1:42:09
  Speaker 4: of square kilometers multified by zero point three eight six
• 1:42:14
  Speaker 4: O five two will give the number of square miles.
• 1:42:18
  Speaker 4: The area of the islands specified amounts to one hundred
• 1:42:23
  Speaker 4: and fifteen thousand, two hundred and thirty eight square miles,
• 1:42:28
  Speaker 4: and the area of all the islands less the Jolo
• 1:42:31
  Speaker 4: group amounts to one hundred and thirty seven thousand and
• 1:42:37
  Speaker 4: fifty seven square miles. Further, the statement is generally made
• 1:42:42
  Speaker 4: that the archipelago of the Philippines contains from one thousand
• 1:42:47
  Speaker 4: to two thousand islands, and the GUIA official says the
• 1:42:53
  Speaker 4: number is more than one thousand, two hundred, but in
• 1:42:57
  Speaker 4: examining the dele Tera Hodel Archipelago Filipino, Madrid, eighteen seventy nine,
• 1:43:05
  Speaker 4: that is, the coast Pilot of the Philippines, covering more
• 1:43:09
  Speaker 4: than one thy two hundred pages, we find that the
• 1:43:13
  Speaker 4: islas is litas, is Lettas, is lotes, is lutilas, and
• 1:43:18
  Speaker 4: parolones therein described amount to five hundred and eighty three.
• 1:43:25
  Speaker 4: Of course, this does not include reefs, rocks, or hidden dangers.
• 1:43:30
  Speaker 4: I submit that these figures of the areas and of
• 1:43:33
  Speaker 4: the number of islands and islets be accepted until replaced
• 1:43:37
  Speaker 4: by government surveys. End of section six, read by Alan Mapstone.
• 1:43:50
  Speaker 5: Section seven of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten, May
• 1:43:55
  Speaker 5: eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
• 1:44:01
  Speaker 5: recordings are in the public domain. For more information or
• 1:44:04
  Speaker 5: to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Phil
• 1:44:09
  Speaker 5: schamph The Recent Ascent of it Tombay by J. C. Branner.
• 1:44:16
  Speaker 5: In his letter referring to the ascent of it Tombay,
• 1:44:19
  Speaker 5: Lieutenant Shipton states this magazine November eighteen ninety eight, page
• 1:44:24
  Speaker 5: four hundred seventy six, that we are supposed to have
• 1:44:28
  Speaker 5: been the first men ever on the summit of this peak.
• 1:44:31
  Speaker 5: Itambay was ascended and measured by Spix and Martius in
• 1:44:36
  Speaker 5: eighteen eighteen. Those authors say of it, the peak of Itambay,
• 1:44:41
  Speaker 5: the highest one ascended and measured by us in all
• 1:44:44
  Speaker 5: our travels through Brazil, has an elevation of five thousand,
• 1:44:49
  Speaker 5: five hundred ninety Parisian feet. This measurement was made with
• 1:44:53
  Speaker 5: a mercurial barometer, and so far as I know, it
• 1:44:57
  Speaker 5: has never been repeated the fact that Ittambay has not
• 1:45:01
  Speaker 5: been ascended is due to its being in a thinly populated,
• 1:45:05
  Speaker 5: untraveled country, rather than to any particular difficulty in getting
• 1:45:09
  Speaker 5: up the peak itself. It dominates almost the entire Diamond
• 1:45:13
  Speaker 5: district of Minus, and in my own travels through that region,
• 1:45:17
  Speaker 5: I was constantly reminded of what doctor Santos says that
• 1:45:21
  Speaker 5: this peak served the old Golden diamond hunters instead of
• 1:45:25
  Speaker 5: a compass, for they never got lost so long as
• 1:45:28
  Speaker 5: it was in sight. It was a granite lighthouse to travelers,
• 1:45:32
  Speaker 5: the center of a circle seventy leagues in diameter in
• 1:45:36
  Speaker 5: which they could revolve without fear of getting lost. J. C. Branner,
• 1:45:42
  Speaker 5: Stanford University, end of section.
• 1:45:46
  Speaker 4: Seven, section eight of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume ten,
• 1:45:57
  Speaker 4: May eighteen ninety nine. This is a LibriVox recording All
• 1:46:01
  Speaker 4: LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information
• 1:46:05
  Speaker 4: or to volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Miscellanea. The
• 1:46:12
  Speaker 4: total imports of the Samoan Islands amounted in eighteen ninety
• 1:46:17
  Speaker 4: five to four hundred and eighteen thousand, eight hundred and
• 1:46:22
  Speaker 4: forty dollars, and the total exports to two hundred and
• 1:46:26
  Speaker 4: fifty six thousand, seven hundred and fifty eight dollars. The
• 1:46:31
  Speaker 4: share of the United States was but sixty thousand, six
• 1:46:35
  Speaker 4: hundred and twenty four dollars in the imports and thirty
• 1:46:40
  Speaker 4: three thousand and fifty dollars in the exports. The government
• 1:46:46
  Speaker 4: of Haiti has imposed a surplus tax of twenty five
• 1:46:50
  Speaker 4: percent on all importations, in effect from March the fourteenth,
• 1:46:55
  Speaker 4: eighteen ninety nine. The proceeds are to be applied to
• 1:46:59
  Speaker 4: the withdrawal of the paper money now in circulation. The
• 1:47:05
  Speaker 4: Austrian Lloyds have recently established a direct service between Trieste
• 1:47:10
  Speaker 4: and Calcutta. Austria is becoming an important factor in the
• 1:47:14
  Speaker 4: rivalry of the greater European powers for the markets of
• 1:47:18
  Speaker 4: the Far East. The Simplon Tunnel, when completed, will be
• 1:47:25
  Speaker 4: twenty one thousand, five hundred and eighty yards long. It
• 1:47:29
  Speaker 4: will contain only a single track, but a second tunnel
• 1:47:33
  Speaker 4: is to be constructed parallel to it at a distance
• 1:47:37
  Speaker 4: of nineteen yards. The northern entrance to the tunnel is
• 1:47:41
  Speaker 4: about a mile and a half from the station at
• 1:47:44
  Speaker 4: Briegg at an elevation of two thousand, two hundred and
• 1:47:48
  Speaker 4: fifty four feet. The exit on the Italian side will
• 1:47:52
  Speaker 4: be eight hundred yards from Issella. To prevent the extinction
• 1:47:59
  Speaker 4: of india roubber trees in the Congo Free State, the
• 1:48:02
  Speaker 4: government has decreed that for every ton of rubber yielded annually,
• 1:48:06
  Speaker 4: there must be planted not less than one hundred and
• 1:48:09
  Speaker 4: fifty trees. The law which prohibits gathering rubber except through
• 1:48:13
  Speaker 4: incisions in the bark, is to be more strictly enforced,
• 1:48:17
  Speaker 4: and violations will be punished by a fine up to
• 1:48:21
  Speaker 4: two thousand dollars or by imprisonment. An English syndicate has
• 1:48:28
  Speaker 4: begun the construction of additional keys and magazines at Genoa.
• 1:48:33
  Speaker 4: In eighteen ninety seven, five million tons of merchandise passed
• 1:48:38
  Speaker 4: through the warehouses of this port, and it is calculated
• 1:48:42
  Speaker 4: that with the completion of the Simplon Tunnel and the
• 1:48:45
  Speaker 4: consequent improvement in railway communication, the annual tonnage will rise
• 1:48:50
  Speaker 4: as high as ten million. Genoa will then be the
• 1:48:54
  Speaker 4: most important port of the Mediterranean. In a recent report
• 1:49:00
  Speaker 4: to the Department of State, mister Thomas E. Moore u
• 1:49:04
  Speaker 4: s commercial agent at Weimar, gives some valuable statistics concerning
• 1:49:09
  Speaker 4: the balance of trade and the increase of population in Germany.
• 1:49:14
  Speaker 4: The rapidly increasing population has caused a corresponding increase in
• 1:49:19
  Speaker 4: the imports of provisions and raw materials, the home products
• 1:49:23
  Speaker 4: not being sufficient to meet home demands. The population of
• 1:49:28
  Speaker 4: the German Customs Union has risen from fifty million, nine
• 1:49:33
  Speaker 4: hundred sixty thousand in eighteen ninety three to fifty four million,
• 1:49:40
  Speaker 4: five hundred thirty thousand on July first, eighteen ninety eight,
• 1:49:45
  Speaker 4: an increase of three million, seven hundred fifty thousand, or
• 1:49:50
  Speaker 4: seven percent within five years. The value of imports has
• 1:49:55
  Speaker 4: increased by twenty nine point five per cent and that
• 1:50:00
  Speaker 4: of exports by twenty seven percent. With the increase of
• 1:50:04
  Speaker 4: population has also come a very apparent expansion of the
• 1:50:09
  Speaker 4: productive capacity of the manufacturing industries. This is especially well
• 1:50:15
  Speaker 4: shown by the steady output of steam engines. The total
• 1:50:19
  Speaker 4: horse power of the steam engines built in eighteen eighty
• 1:50:23
  Speaker 4: eight was one million, six hundred eighty three thousand, while
• 1:50:28
  Speaker 4: in eighteen ninety eight the total was three million, four
• 1:50:33
  Speaker 4: hundred twenty two thousand. The most significant figures, however, are
• 1:50:38
  Speaker 4: those of the manufacture of stationery engines during the last
• 1:50:42
  Speaker 4: three years. In eighteen ninety six, the total horse power
• 1:50:47
  Speaker 4: was two million, five hundred and thirty four thousand, in
• 1:50:51
  Speaker 4: eighteen ninety seven two million, one hundred seventy four thousand,
• 1:50:56
  Speaker 4: in eighteen ninety eight two million, nine hund hundred and
• 1:51:00
  Speaker 4: forty seven thousand. Agriculture does not show a corresponding development,
• 1:51:06
  Speaker 4: as the limits of the green growing area can be extended,
• 1:51:09
  Speaker 4: but slowly. End of section eight. Recording by Alum Mapstone,
• 1:51:18
  Speaker 4: end of the National Geographic Magazine, Volume tenh May eighteen
• 1:51:23
  Speaker 4: ninety nine.