Latest / The History of Greece: Philosophy, Empire, and Endless Reinvention — Fexingo History / Xenophon the Athenian: Soldier, Historian, and Philosopher
Transcript
- Lucas: So we've covered Thucydides — the great historian of the Peloponnesian War. But he wasn't the only Athenian to write about that conflict and its aftermath. Today I want to talk about Xenophon, who is one of the most fascinating and misunderstood figures of the fourth century. Luna: Xenophon — I know he wrote the Anabasis, the march of the Ten Thousand. But wasn't he also a soldier and a philosopher? Lucas: Exactly right. Xenophon was an Athenian aristocrat, born around 430 BCE, so he came of age during the Peloponnesian War. He was a student of Socrates, but unlike Plato, who focused on abstract philosophy, Xenophon wrote about practical things — military campaigns, estate management, horsemanship, even how to train a dog. Luna: A man of action and letters. So how did he end up leading a Greek army into Persia? Lucas: Well, after the Peloponnesian War ended in 404, Athens was in turmoil. Xenophon was invited by a friend, Proxenus, to join a mercenary expedition. The ostensible mission was to help Cyrus the Younger, a Persian prince, put down some rebels in Asia Minor. But Cyrus actually wanted to march on his brother, King Artaxerxes II, and seize the throne. Lucas: Xenophon didn't know the true goal at first. The Greek mercenaries, about 13,000 of them, marched inland from Sardis all the way to Cunaxa, near Babylon, where they fought the royal army. Cyrus was killed in the battle, and suddenly the Greeks were stranded deep in enemy territory, surrounded by hostile Persians. Luna: That's when the famous march begins. But wasn't there a betrayal first? Lucas: Yes — the Persian satrap Tissaphernes tricked the Greek generals into a parley and then executed them. Clearchus and the other leaders were killed. The Greeks were leaderless, demoralized, and 1,500 kilometers from the nearest friendly coast. That's when Xenophon, who had been just a young volunteer, stepped up. Lucas: He gave a speech, rallied the troops, and helped elect new generals. He became one of the key commanders. They fought their way north through hostile tribes, across the Zagros Mountains, and finally reached the Greek city of Trapezus on the Black Sea. The story of that march is the Anabasis — the 'march up country.' Luna: That's an incredible survival story. And Xenophon wrote it in third person, didn't he? Lucas: He did. He refers to himself as 'Xenophon' throughout, which gives it an almost novelistic feel. It's a gripping account, full of vivid details — the snow, the enemy attacks, the decisions made around campfires. It's also our best source for understanding the Persian empire from the inside during this period. Lucas: After the Ten Thousand reached the Black Sea, they eventually joined up with a Spartan army under Thibron, and Xenophon ended up serving the Spartans. He became close to King Agesilaus II, and he even fought against his own city, Athens, in the Corinthian War. That didn't endear him to his fellow Athenians. Luna: So he was exiled from Athens? Lucas: Yes, probably around 394 BCE. The Athenians passed a decree of exile, likely because of his pro-Spartan activities. He settled in Scillus, a town near Olympia in the Peloponnese, where the Spartans gave him an estate. There he lived with his family, wrote, and hunted. It was a comfortable life. Lucas: At Scillus, Xenophon wrote most of his works — not just the Anabasis, but also the Hellenica, which continues Thucydides' history from 411 down to the Battle of Mantinea in 362. He also wrote the Cyropaedia, a kind of fictional biography of Cyrus the Great that's really a treatise on leadership. Luna: I've heard of the Cyropaedia — didn't it influence later ideas about the 'mirror for princes'? Lucas: Absolutely. Machiavelli read it. The Cyropaedia presents an idealized Cyrus as a wise and just ruler who earns loyalty through merit. It's part history, part moral philosophy. Xenophon also wrote the Memorabilia — his recollections of Socrates. Unlike Plato's Socrates, Xenophon's is more down to earth, focused on practical ethics. Lucas: For anyone coming with us through these conversations — about Mediterranean history — you've probably noticed we deliberately don't run ads. No sponsors, no product pitches. That's a choice. If you appreciate the ad-free approach, you can support the show at buy me a coffee dot com slash fexingo. Luna: It really does make a difference. Every bit helps keep the research and conversation going. Lucas: And that support is what lets us keep diving deep into figures like Xenophon — who, by the way, also wrote practical manuals. His On Horsemanship is one of the earliest works on horse care, and his Oeconomicus is a dialogue on household management that influenced Roman writers like Cato and Varro. Luna: He really covered everything. But I've read that some historians criticize Xenophon — they say he's not as reliable as Thucydides. Lucas: That's fair. Thucydides is more analytical and rigorous about sources. Xenophon is more of a memoirist. He had biases — he admired Sparta, he was friends with Agesilaus, and he sometimes omits things that make the Spartans look bad. For example, in his Hellenica, he doesn't mention the Spartan seizure of the Theban acropolis in 382, which was a blatant act of aggression. Lucas: But that doesn't mean Xenophon is worthless. He gives us details no one else preserves — the daily life of soldiers, the logistics of a marching army, the politics of Greek city-states in the fourth century. And his writing style is clear and engaging. Luna: What about his Socratic works? Do they add anything beyond Plato? Lucas: Absolutely. Plato's Socrates is often a skeptic who questions everything. Xenophon's Socrates is more of a moral teacher, giving practical advice about friendship, self-control, and piety. The two portraits complement each other. And Xenophon includes an Apology of Socrates that differs from Plato's version. In Xenophon's account, Socrates is almost arrogant — he welcomes death because he's old and it's time. Lucas: Xenophon also wrote the Symposium, a dinner-party conversation, and the Hiero, a dialogue between a poet and a tyrant about the burdens of power. He was always interested in leadership and how to govern effectively. Luna: It's interesting that he wrote so much while in exile. Did he ever return to Athens? Lucas: He did, late in life. After the rise of Thebes under Epaminondas, Sparta's power declined, and the Athenians eventually revoked his exile, probably around 365. He moved back to Athens, but he seems to have kept his estate at Scillus. His sons fought for Athens at the Battle of Mantinea in 362, one of them died there. Lucas: Xenophon died around 354, likely in Athens or Corinth. He left behind a body of work that spans history, philosophy, biography, and practical manuals. He's not as deep as Plato or as rigorous as Thucydides, but he's more accessible — and he gives us a window into the world of a gentleman-soldier of ancient Greece. Luna: I think that's why he's still read today. There's something relatable about someone who wrote about real problems — how to manage a farm, how to lead men, how to survive when everything goes wrong. Lucas: Exactly. Xenophon's legacy is that he combined action and reflection. He lived through some of the most dramatic events of his time and then sat down to write about them with clarity and honesty. His voice is one of the most personal we have from classical Greece.