Latest / Space Nuts: Astronomy Insights & Cosmic Discoveries / Cosmic Queries, Jovian Mysteries & Martian Quakes: #494 - The Great Space Q&A

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Cosmic Queries, Jovian Mysteries & Martian Quakes: #494 - The Great Space Q&A · Space Nuts: Astronomy Insights & Cosmic Discoveries

• 0:00
  Speaker 1: Hi there, thanks for joining us.
• 0:02
  Speaker 2: This is a Q and a episode of Space Nuts.
• 0:05
  Speaker 1: That's me.
• 0:05
  Speaker 2: That means says questions that people ask and there are
• 0:08
  Speaker 2: answers that I do not give. Someone else will do that.
• 0:11
  Speaker 2: But coming up we're going to We're going to get
• 0:14
  Speaker 2: to something we planned to do last week, but it
• 0:17
  Speaker 2: just it was a big question which required a lot
• 0:20
  Speaker 2: of effort and a lot of answers and a lot
• 0:22
  Speaker 2: of research. We just sort of ran out of time.
• 0:24
  Speaker 2: So we'll get that one done today. From Fenton, Kerry
• 0:30
  Speaker 2: is asking about the effects of light by dust clouds
• 0:33
  Speaker 2: or the effects on light. Nigel is talking brown dwarfs
• 0:38
  Speaker 2: and Paddy mars quakes. That's all coming up in this
• 0:41
  Speaker 2: edition of Space Nuts fifteen in Channel ten nine ignition.
• 0:49
  Speaker 1: Squench Space Nuts or three.
• 0:53
  Speaker 2: Two Space nuts as and I report it Neils Good.
• 1:00
  Speaker 2: Joining us again is Professor John D. Horner, who is
• 1:04
  Speaker 2: a professor of astrophysics at the University of Southern Queensland.
• 1:07
  Speaker 2: A horrible part of the world, but somebody's got to
• 1:09
  Speaker 2: live there, haven't they.
• 1:10
  Speaker 1: Johnny.
• 1:11
  Speaker 3: Absolutely, it's drudged. It's glorious here at the minute, but
• 1:14
  Speaker 3: we could do with a bit of rand that said,
• 1:16
  Speaker 3: giving the amount of rent, that's something elsewhere in Australia.
• 1:18
  Speaker 3: I'm probably gloved that we're not getting that. Yes, much
• 1:21
  Speaker 3: much further north than you are.
• 1:23
  Speaker 2: Up around the North Queensland Townsville area, it's been bucketing
• 1:28
  Speaker 2: down and they've had some big floods.
• 1:31
  Speaker 3: Big flood that my head around the concept of getting
• 1:33
  Speaker 3: two meters of ren in a couple of days.
• 1:35
  Speaker 2: Yeah, I can't. Yeah, I mean a big rain for
• 1:39
  Speaker 2: us is eighty millimeters in an hour. Yeah, that's a
• 1:42
  Speaker 2: big rain. I think the biggest I've ever experienced here
• 1:46
  Speaker 2: was two hundred millimeters over a weekend. Yeah, that was
• 1:49
  Speaker 2: some years ago and that caused big floods across the area.
• 1:52
  Speaker 2: But yeah, the numbers they're talking up there are astronomical
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  Speaker 2: and your power thoughts go out.
• 2:00
  Speaker 1: To everybody affected.
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  Speaker 2: Now we should get straight into Fenton's question because it's
• 2:07
  Speaker 2: a big one, and we'll be back in about two
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  Speaker 2: or three als once he's finished.
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  Speaker 4: Hey, fer Andrew, this is Fenton speaking to you from
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  Speaker 4: Saint Paul, Minnesota, and you're asked on the other side
• 2:18
  Speaker 4: of the planet. I got some questions for you today
• 2:22
  Speaker 4: about radiation. Now, right now, we have spacecraft that are
• 2:26
  Speaker 4: underway to Jupiter, and there's a lot of fretting about
• 2:29
  Speaker 4: what's going to happen and how to get them to
• 2:32
  Speaker 4: avoid radiation blasting off Jupiter. Well, we have three types
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  Speaker 4: of radiation alpha, beta, and gamma. If you wish, I'll
• 2:40
  Speaker 4: leave that up to you to explain that to the audience.
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  Speaker 4: My question to you here is what type of radiation
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  Speaker 4: is that that's coming off of Jupiter.
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  Speaker 5: Is it just the alpha particles? In other words, just
• 2:52
  Speaker 5: protons hydrogen atoms. Now here we go on to ion.
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  Speaker 5: Io is also blasting off particles from its surface as
• 3:02
  Speaker 5: a result of it being volcanic. So I guess that
• 3:07
  Speaker 5: means we have these charged particles coming off. Do you
• 3:10
  Speaker 5: want to also include them in the term of radiation?
• 3:14
  Speaker 5: Now I was also interested in what types of particles
• 3:18
  Speaker 5: they have. These are metals apparently, for example, if it
• 3:22
  Speaker 5: were iron then and if it were charged, then iron
• 3:26
  Speaker 5: can be magnetic and that means it could possibly be
• 3:29
  Speaker 5: interactive with the magnetic field of Jupiter. So where's that
• 3:35
  Speaker 5: stuff going? Is it sticking along Jupiter? Is it heading
• 3:38
  Speaker 5: off beyond Jupiter? Is it landing on some moons? And lastly,
• 3:45
  Speaker 5: I want to ask you about a practical application for
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  Speaker 5: this now here back on Earth, we can deposit metal
• 3:52
  Speaker 5: ions from the gas phase onto substrates and that has
• 3:54
  Speaker 5: a lot of very useful applications. It's pretty expensive too,
• 3:59
  Speaker 5: So what happens when we put a substrate in a
• 4:02
  Speaker 5: way in blocking those metal ions or metal metal particles
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  Speaker 5: they are coming off of aio? Could we use that
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  Speaker 5: to deposit metals onto a surface? Just a thought. I'd
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  Speaker 5: love to hear what you think about it and what
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  Speaker 5: where you take my questions?
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  Speaker 4: Oh a great week? Why no?
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  Speaker 2: Thank you? Fenton? Always always thinking deeply?
• 4:32
  Speaker 1: Is Fenton?
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  Speaker 2: These questions are always multifaceted, and that one is no exception.
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  Speaker 2: So we started off talking about the different types of
• 4:41
  Speaker 2: radiation and which which kind is it's coming off Jupiter.
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  Speaker 3: Yeah, I'll dive through this set BA set, But what
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  Speaker 3: I will do initially is it's a fabulous question. There's
• 4:50
  Speaker 3: a lot in here I'd recommend for the interested listener
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  Speaker 3: who wants to dig into Jupiter's.
• 4:55
  Speaker 1: Environment a little bit more.
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  Speaker 3: It's a Wikipedia article about Jupiter's my magnetosphere, which is
• 5:01
  Speaker 3: literally magnetosphere of Jupiter, which is incredibly thorough and detailed
• 5:05
  Speaker 3: and goes into some of the things we're about to
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  Speaker 3: discuss in more detail than I will do. Now, Wikipedia's
• 5:10
  Speaker 3: a fluid resource. It can be changed, so your experience
• 5:13
  Speaker 3: may vary.
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  Speaker 5: But what we.
• 5:14
  Speaker 3: Typically typically see is for astronomy and space subjects. They
• 5:19
  Speaker 3: are not controversial, but there's enough people out there who
• 5:21
  Speaker 3: are incredibly passionate about it that when an error creeps in.
• 5:24
  Speaker 1: It gets fixed very quickly.
• 5:26
  Speaker 3: So whilst it's not the most reliable resource, it can
• 5:28
  Speaker 3: be very very good. So I do recommend looking into
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  Speaker 3: that if you want more details on some of the
• 5:32
  Speaker 3: stuff we'll discuss, but I'll try and pick through the
• 5:35
  Speaker 3: many things Fenton said there in turn, just to try
• 5:37
  Speaker 3: and work through them if that makes sense, and hopefully
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  Speaker 3: that will be helpful. Fenton, if you're listening in. Firstly,
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  Speaker 3: when you mentioned three types of radiation, you're talking there
• 5:46
  Speaker 3: about alpha, betre, and gamma, which are the kinds of
• 5:48
  Speaker 3: radiation that people talk about being produced by radioactive decay.
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  Speaker 3: And they are three kinds of radiation, but they're not
• 5:56
  Speaker 3: the entirety of what radiation is, and they're actually different
• 6:00
  Speaker 3: kinds of thing anyway. So alpha radiation is essentially helium nuclei,
• 6:05
  Speaker 3: so two protons and two neutrons stuck together coming outwards.
• 6:09
  Speaker 3: That's fairly substantial particle. So that's radiation as a particle.
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  Speaker 3: So particle that's ejected in this case from a radioactive process,
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  Speaker 3: flung outwards with a certain speed, and it's carrying energy
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  Speaker 3: from one place to another in the form of the
• 6:22
  Speaker 3: particle itself moving at that speed from A to B.
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  Speaker 3: Beta radiation is electrons essentially, so much less massive, typically
• 6:31
  Speaker 3: traveling much faster, that are again produced by radioactivetycare quite
• 6:35
  Speaker 3: often other processors. Alpha particles are positively charged because you've
• 6:39
  Speaker 3: got protons in but no electrons. Beta radiation is negatively
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  Speaker 3: charged because it's got electrons in, and then gamma radiation
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  Speaker 3: is very high energy electromagnetic radiation. So that's the top
• 6:52
  Speaker 3: end of the electromagnetic spectrum, which also features light that
• 6:55
  Speaker 3: I'm using to look at Andrew whileye waffle away here
• 6:57
  Speaker 3: and see him nodding unwisely. So there are different bits
• 7:00
  Speaker 3: of radiation. Essentially, at the very simplest end, you talk
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  Speaker 3: about radiation just being energy being moved from one place
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  Speaker 3: to another, and that can be done by waves or particles.
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  Speaker 3: So a very extreme stretch, you could probably argue that
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  Speaker 3: when you go outside and you turn the hose pipe
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  Speaker 3: on and you have a jet, and that water is
• 7:19
  Speaker 3: going from one pleasure another. That's form of radiation. It's
• 7:22
  Speaker 3: energy being moved from one place to another. So there's
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  Speaker 3: a lot of different ways that energy can be transferred
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  Speaker 3: in this way, and light in its many forms is
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  Speaker 3: one of them. So that's everything from gamma rays at
• 7:34
  Speaker 3: the high energy end to radio waves at low energy end,
• 7:36
  Speaker 3: with optical and microwaven infrared in the middle somewhere. So
• 7:41
  Speaker 3: there's a lot too radiation there. Now there's a couple
• 7:45
  Speaker 3: of things happening with Jupiter. Firstly, you talk about the
• 7:47
  Speaker 3: radiation coming off Jupiter. Now, if you think about jupe
• 7:50
  Speaker 3: to the planet itself, it's sometimes said that Jupiter emits
• 7:54
  Speaker 3: more energy than it receives from the Sun, and that's
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  Speaker 3: the leftover from Jupiter's form a from all the material
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  Speaker 3: coming into it, the gravitational relaxation of it. Essentially, that
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  Speaker 3: is energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation. So
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  Speaker 3: light essentially of various wavelengths, it will emit as what
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  Speaker 3: we call a black body, so it'll have one particular
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  Speaker 3: color of light.
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  Speaker 1: That it emits.
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  Speaker 3: Happen most strongly, and whether you go blue or or
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  Speaker 3: reader of that color, it will emit more weakly as
• 8:21
  Speaker 3: you go further away. So that's due to emitting energy,
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  Speaker 3: but it's also surrounded by an incredibly intense magnetic field,
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  Speaker 3: much stronger than the Earth's. So hop to the Earth briefly.
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  Speaker 3: One of the challenges that people face when the fly
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  Speaker 3: satellites around the Earth is that there are these radiation.
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  Speaker 1: Belts around the Earth called the Van Allen Belts, and.
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  Speaker 3: They were proposed just prior to the space age and
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  Speaker 3: then detected by the first satellites. What's going on there
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  Speaker 3: is that the Earth has a magnetic field around it
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  Speaker 3: that interacts with the magnetic field of the Sun and
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  Speaker 3: the rest of.
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  Speaker 1: The Solar system.
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  Speaker 3: And we've got this area around the Earth called the magnetosphere,
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  Speaker 3: and the magnetosphere if sculptured and shaped by what's going
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  Speaker 3: on else.
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  Speaker 1: Now.
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  Speaker 3: In the case of the Earth, you've got solar radiation
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  Speaker 3: in the form of charged particles as part of the
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  Speaker 3: solar wind buffeting against our magnetosphere, penetrating in. And when
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  Speaker 3: you have particles that have charge, whether they're positively or
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  Speaker 3: negatively charged, they interact with magnetic fields, so they will
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  Speaker 3: follow the direction of the magnetic field lines. And now
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  Speaker 3: our magnetosphere shields us from a lot of the radiation
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  Speaker 3: like that because it goes around the Earth rather than
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  Speaker 3: hitting us. But some of the radiation, in the form
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  Speaker 3: of charge particles that penetrates the ath magnetic field then
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  Speaker 3: gets trapped in the magnetic field in these belts that
• 9:35
  Speaker 3: we call the Vanalon belts, which are areas where you
• 9:38
  Speaker 3: have a lot of charge particles moving around at high
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  Speaker 3: speed trapped in these belts around the Earth between a
• 9:45
  Speaker 3: few hundred and a few tens of thousands kilometers above
• 9:47
  Speaker 3: the Earth's service. Those are areas where if you fly
• 9:51
  Speaker 3: a spacecraft through there, there's a lot of charge particles
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  Speaker 3: crashing into your spacecraft at high speed that can damage
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  Speaker 3: the electronics of circuitry in particular very sensitive to this
• 10:01
  Speaker 3: and gradually damage your spacecraft and take it out of operation.
• 10:06
  Speaker 3: So that's the radiation environment around the Earth, and they're
• 10:08
  Speaker 3: try and avoid going through the viole and belts as
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  Speaker 3: a result. Jupiter's the same. Jupiter has a much more
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  Speaker 3: intense magnetic field, so it can have a much more
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  Speaker 3: significant area of radiation belts, and those radiation belts correspond
• 10:22
  Speaker 3: roughly with the location of the large moons, particularly Europa
• 10:27
  Speaker 3: and Io. So in that area, when you're a spacecraft
• 10:31
  Speaker 3: moving through there, you're moving through a soup of high
• 10:34
  Speaker 3: speed charged particles that are continually bombarding your spacecraft, degrading it,
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  Speaker 3: damaging it, and of course they're particularly damaging to the
• 10:42
  Speaker 3: electrical component ry. So you want to spend as little
• 10:44
  Speaker 3: time as you can there, and that's essentially what the
• 10:47
  Speaker 3: concern is for the scientists who are sending spacecraft to Jupiter.
• 10:52
  Speaker 3: So that's what's going on there. Added to that, though,
• 10:55
  Speaker 3: you've got the volcanism from Io, which Fenton mentions, and
• 10:58
  Speaker 3: Fentin's quite right, always erupting continuously volcanically into that radiation
• 11:05
  Speaker 3: environment around Jupiter, adding I think some quotes say up
• 11:08
  Speaker 3: to one thousand kilos per second of new material into
• 11:12
  Speaker 3: that environment. Now, the atoms that are launched out of
• 11:15
  Speaker 3: Io by this volcanism are things like sulfur, oxygen, sulfur dioxide,
• 11:19
  Speaker 3: all these kind of things that initially are molecules and
• 11:23
  Speaker 3: atoms but are very quickly ionized, so they have an
• 11:26
  Speaker 3: electron knocked off colliding with the charge particles, which certainly
• 11:30
  Speaker 3: means you've got sulfur ions, oxygen ions, sodium ions, all
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  Speaker 3: floating around in a magnetic field, so I always dumping
• 11:37
  Speaker 3: even more charged particles into that radiation. Bell those charge
• 11:42
  Speaker 3: particles from ioincidentally flow along Jupiter's magnetic field lines and
• 11:46
  Speaker 3: crash into the Jovian poles, creating hot spots of aurora.
• 11:49
  Speaker 3: So they are aurora on Jupiter that are directly linked
• 11:53
  Speaker 3: to Io and to a lesser extent, Europa and Ganymat.
• 11:56
  Speaker 3: You can see them if you look at aurora maps
• 11:58
  Speaker 3: of Jupiter that are spacecraft to seven. So you get
• 12:01
  Speaker 3: this flux Taurus connecting Io to the poles of Jupiter,
• 12:05
  Speaker 3: which is the charged particles flowing along the magnetic fielands
• 12:08
  Speaker 3: and crashing into Jupiter's poles. So that's how Io's chipping,
• 12:11
  Speaker 3: and it's just adding more soup to the mix, essentially
• 12:15
  Speaker 3: moving the metals.
• 12:16
  Speaker 1: Being magnetic. I'm trying to get through all the points.
• 12:20
  Speaker 2: Yeah, I just thought it was fascinating that that there's
• 12:23
  Speaker 2: such an effect happening around Jupiter, and like the like,
• 12:26
  Speaker 2: we see similar effects with the Aurora borealis and the
• 12:29
  Speaker 2: Aurora stralla, but different reasons, same effect, So you'll have.
• 12:34
  Speaker 3: Aurora on Jupiter that had caused the same way as
• 12:37
  Speaker 3: the aurora on Earth. But you also have Io Europe
• 12:40
  Speaker 3: and Ganymede cooking their own aurora as well, So it's complicated.
• 12:43
  Speaker 1: I think.
• 12:46
  Speaker 3: With the metals being magnetic, there's a couple of things
• 12:48
  Speaker 3: there to mention. You're entirely right that metals like iron
• 12:52
  Speaker 3: and nickel can become permanently magnetized, and this is something
• 12:55
  Speaker 3: called ferromagnetism. Now I'm not a specialist on magnetism any means,
• 13:00
  Speaker 3: And one of the common jokes in astronomy is if
• 13:02
  Speaker 3: you want to ask a question at a conference, it's
• 13:04
  Speaker 3: almost certainly have you considered magnetic fields? And the answer
• 13:08
  Speaker 3: is almost certainly no, because it's just complicated. There's actually
• 13:11
  Speaker 3: a few types of magnetism that involves physical materials out there.
• 13:17
  Speaker 3: Magnetisms are as famous. It's the one that's easy to
• 13:19
  Speaker 3: observe with magnets. But that kind of interaction with magnetic
• 13:24
  Speaker 3: field is not what we're talking about here. So we're
• 13:26
  Speaker 3: not talking about solid lumps of the metal interacting with
• 13:29
  Speaker 3: a magnetic field. We're talking about individual atoms and molecules
• 13:33
  Speaker 3: that have been ionized and they're interacting with a magnetic field,
• 13:36
  Speaker 3: not because they are magnetic, but because they're electrically charged.
• 13:40
  Speaker 3: And it is a subtle difference, but it's worth flagging
• 13:42
  Speaker 3: out that there are two different things there.
• 13:44
  Speaker 1: Now.
• 13:45
  Speaker 3: The practical application you talk about about having something there
• 13:48
  Speaker 3: for all this stuff to smack into is exactly what
• 13:51
  Speaker 3: they're doing. So if you've got your spacecraft with all
• 13:54
  Speaker 3: this valuable electronics on it, you want it to live
• 13:56
  Speaker 3: as long as possible at Jupiter does it costs a
• 13:58
  Speaker 3: lot to get there, and they're doing two things simultaneously
• 14:02
  Speaker 3: to maximize a lifetime of these missions. The first ads
• 14:06
  Speaker 3: wit and therefore ads cost, but essentially for your upper clipper,
• 14:09
  Speaker 3: the entire insurance suite and everything that does the science
• 14:13
  Speaker 3: that they can protect is enclosed in this hard shell,
• 14:17
  Speaker 3: which is made of about one hundred kilograms of titanium.
• 14:20
  Speaker 3: So titanium very dense, is like a protective shield around it,
• 14:23
  Speaker 3: I guess, serving much the same role that your windscreen
• 14:26
  Speaker 3: does when you're driving through a rainstone, the water hits
• 14:28
  Speaker 3: your windscreen rather than hitting you in the face.
• 14:31
  Speaker 1: Kind of idea.
• 14:32
  Speaker 3: So that's part of how the solving it, which is
• 14:34
  Speaker 3: exactly what Fenton was talking about with having the ions
• 14:37
  Speaker 3: and stuff splait into something and coating them essentially. The
• 14:41
  Speaker 3: other thing they do is linked to bandwidth, and this
• 14:43
  Speaker 3: is a perennial issue in Australia with the quality of
• 14:45
  Speaker 3: the National broadband Network and with things like Starlink, you
• 14:48
  Speaker 3: want as much bandwidth as you can to transmit data
• 14:51
  Speaker 3: around and the bandwidth you get back from Jupiter is
• 14:54
  Speaker 3: pretty low because you're so far away. Basically, the further
• 14:57
  Speaker 3: away you're broadcasting from, the lower your bandwidth. And it
• 15:01
  Speaker 3: turns out that we don't have broadcasting equipment on these
• 15:04
  Speaker 3: satellites on the spacecraft strong enough to send back the
• 15:08
  Speaker 3: data in real time. The rate at which you get
• 15:10
  Speaker 3: data is much higher than the rate at which you
• 15:12
  Speaker 3: can send it home. So what that means is if
• 15:15
  Speaker 3: you went into orbit around Europa, you would be gathering
• 15:18
  Speaker 3: data much more quickly than you can send it back,
• 15:21
  Speaker 3: and then when your spacecraft dies, you've lost all of
• 15:23
  Speaker 3: your data. So you want to maximize the amount of
• 15:26
  Speaker 3: time you can spend gathering data that we get back.
• 15:29
  Speaker 3: And the way they've solved that partially is by having
• 15:32
  Speaker 3: the cladding the protection that titanium cell. But that's why
• 15:36
  Speaker 3: they've opted to instead of orbiting Europa to move on
• 15:39
  Speaker 3: a highly elongated orbit round Jupiter and have flybytes biase
• 15:43
  Speaker 3: the amount of data they can gather in a one
• 15:45
  Speaker 3: hour flyby, it might take them several days or a
• 15:47
  Speaker 3: week to broadcast back home. If you're just sat around
• 15:50
  Speaker 3: Europa waiting for that to happen, your spacecraft's getting cooked.
• 15:53
  Speaker 3: But if you move on a highly elongated orbit around Jeopter,
• 15:55
  Speaker 3: you spend most of your time on an elongated orbit
• 15:58
  Speaker 3: near the furthest point on that orbit from the thing
• 16:00
  Speaker 3: you're going around. That's when you move slowest. So you
• 16:03
  Speaker 3: can have your spacecraft ducking for a very fast flyby,
• 16:06
  Speaker 3: then fly back out of the radiation belt and spend
• 16:08
  Speaker 3: most of its time safe and not getting cooked while
• 16:11
  Speaker 3: it broadcasts back to Earth. And by doing that you
• 16:14
  Speaker 3: maximize the amount of time the spacecraft can live to
• 16:17
  Speaker 3: take data and give it back to you, So you
• 16:19
  Speaker 3: get the maximum yield from your spacecraft, and the shielding
• 16:23
  Speaker 3: just helps accentuate that. So I think Fenton have ticked
• 16:27
  Speaker 3: off every point you've made there. I apologize that that
• 16:30
  Speaker 3: was an epic wall of verbal gibberish from me, but
• 16:33
  Speaker 3: hopefully I've covered everything with a lot of John t
• 16:35
  Speaker 3: wiffall there.
• 16:36
  Speaker 2: Yes, indeed, now well unpecked, I will say, and thanks Fenton.
• 16:41
  Speaker 2: I hope we covered your questions adequately. We strive for
• 16:47
  Speaker 2: adequacy here at space nets, as you know, and you
• 16:50
  Speaker 2: are listening to a Q and A edition of Spacenuts
• 16:53
  Speaker 2: with Andrew Ankley and Johnny Horn as.
• 17:00
  Speaker 1: Quiet space Nuts.
• 17:02
  Speaker 2: Next question comes from somebody whose name I can't find
• 17:07
  Speaker 2: right at the moment, but oh it's Kerry from Mount Gambia.
• 17:13
  Speaker 2: As I understand it, light refracts because the speed of
• 17:16
  Speaker 2: light in matter eg. Glass is slower than in a vacuum.
• 17:20
  Speaker 2: I also understand that we judge the distance slash age
• 17:23
  Speaker 2: of the universe objects by addressing their light red shift.
• 17:28
  Speaker 2: I therefore presume light refraction impacts the red shift. So
• 17:33
  Speaker 2: the question is do the gas clouds in space slow
• 17:37
  Speaker 2: light down i e. Impact the red shift? If yes,
• 17:41
  Speaker 2: how is the impact of these dust clouds on the
• 17:44
  Speaker 2: red shift we use for universal distances allowed for in
• 17:49
  Speaker 2: the determining of the age of the Universe's objects.
• 17:53
  Speaker 3: It's a fabulous question and a really good observation there.
• 17:58
  Speaker 3: So the difference here is good to be that when
• 18:01
  Speaker 3: the light enters that gas cloud, it will slow down
• 18:03
  Speaker 3: a little bit. Now it's not very much because the
• 18:05
  Speaker 3: density of the gas cloud is incredibly low, so it's
• 18:07
  Speaker 3: a barely perceptible change. But when it leaves again, it
• 18:10
  Speaker 3: will speed back up again, so there's no net impact
• 18:13
  Speaker 3: on the red shift. Essentially, the light coming out of
• 18:16
  Speaker 3: the gas cloud will be at the same wavelength it
• 18:19
  Speaker 3: was when it went in, even though when it was
• 18:21
  Speaker 3: going through the gas cloud it would have been slowed
• 18:23
  Speaker 3: down a bit. The red shift itself is essentially down
• 18:26
  Speaker 3: to the stretching of the universe. That's kind of how
• 18:29
  Speaker 3: I always envisage it. So the more stretched the light is,
• 18:31
  Speaker 3: the rhetoric gets and that is an effect that's independent
• 18:35
  Speaker 3: of the material that it's going through. Now, what you
• 18:39
  Speaker 3: could imagine happening is that, let's say, you know, we
• 18:41
  Speaker 3: were in the middle of a dense gas cloud at
• 18:43
  Speaker 3: the minute, then all of the light reaching us would
• 18:45
  Speaker 3: be very slightly shifted to the red, but it would
• 18:47
  Speaker 3: only be a tiny, tiny, tiny little effect, whereas the
• 18:50
  Speaker 3: red shifts were measuring a much more substantive and much
• 18:53
  Speaker 3: more substantial. So you are right that the speed of
• 18:57
  Speaker 3: light changes as it goes through clouds, and in fact
• 19:00
  Speaker 3: and I'm a little wooly on this so apologist to
• 19:02
  Speaker 3: twenty radio astronomers who are listening. But I remember a
• 19:05
  Speaker 3: talk a few years ago that was looking at supernova
• 19:08
  Speaker 3: and things like that, and talking about getting a feel
• 19:12
  Speaker 3: for the amount of gas clouds on our line of
• 19:16
  Speaker 3: sight to an object, where you had an object that
• 19:19
  Speaker 3: had been lensed, so you had two different images of
• 19:21
  Speaker 3: the same object coming through different paths to us, and
• 19:24
  Speaker 3: seeing the difference in timing of a certain event at
• 19:27
  Speaker 3: radio wavelengths because one of those pasts had gone through
• 19:30
  Speaker 3: more gas clouds than the other, so you have the
• 19:32
  Speaker 3: same pulse arriving at slightly different times because it had
• 19:36
  Speaker 3: moved slower through the gas clouds. So that's where you
• 19:39
  Speaker 3: do get this effect. And I found that top fascinating,
• 19:42
  Speaker 3: even though quite happily, I admit a lot of it's
• 19:44
  Speaker 3: lost on me, both in time and distance in the past.
• 19:48
  Speaker 3: So it does impact things there, but it doesn't really
• 19:50
  Speaker 3: impact the redshift because when you leave the gas cloud,
• 19:52
  Speaker 3: you speed back up, and also because a degree of
• 19:54
  Speaker 3: change is very very small.
• 19:57
  Speaker 2: Okay, there you go fairly answer to that one, and Carrie,
• 20:02
  Speaker 2: thanks for sending it in. Let's go to our next
• 20:04
  Speaker 2: audio question from Nigel.
• 20:08
  Speaker 6: Hi, friend and Andrew.
• 20:09
  Speaker 4: This is Nigel from Brisbane, Australia.
• 20:11
  Speaker 6: I recently heard a report on both Astronomy Daily and
• 20:16
  Speaker 6: yourselves on Space Nuts. It was a story about a
• 20:21
  Speaker 6: newly discovered binary brown dwarf system discovered. I think it
• 20:29
  Speaker 6: was called Gleisa two nine to nine b Anyway, binary
• 20:35
  Speaker 6: star systems got me thinking are they destined to collide?
• 20:40
  Speaker 6: So should we expect the two brown dwarves to meet
• 20:47
  Speaker 6: and forms one And the second question is if they
• 20:51
  Speaker 6: did collide and form one star, would they be big
• 20:56
  Speaker 6: enough in mass to create one start? Okay, thanks for
• 21:03
  Speaker 6: taking my question, love the show, keep up the good work.
• 21:06
  Speaker 2: Wait, thanks Ni, Johnny, he's just down the road from you. Johnty,
• 21:09
  Speaker 2: You're not far away at all. You probably could have
• 21:12
  Speaker 2: come in and given you their question. Absolutely so lazy
• 21:15
  Speaker 2: of him. So we're talking about a binary brown dwarf
• 21:21
  Speaker 2: system and will they collide?
• 21:24
  Speaker 1: That was the first part of his question.
• 21:26
  Speaker 3: So a few little parts to that, and the answer
• 21:28
  Speaker 3: to that is almost certainly no. But and there's always
• 21:33
  Speaker 3: a boot. So if you imagine initially that you have
• 21:35
  Speaker 3: those two brown dwarfs orbiting one another, totally separate from
• 21:40
  Speaker 3: the rest of the universe, so nothing else was interfering.
• 21:44
  Speaker 3: Then the two will just continue orbiting as they are
• 21:47
  Speaker 3: essentially forever, because you've got nothing to dissipair energy to
• 21:51
  Speaker 3: slow them down to make.
• 21:52
  Speaker 1: Them spiral inwards.
• 21:54
  Speaker 3: Gets a bit more complicated though, in that there are
• 21:57
  Speaker 3: things that can change the orbits to do with interaction. Now,
• 22:00
  Speaker 3: these al tentric wife things to be close together. So
• 22:02
  Speaker 3: if the brow dwarfs are really far apart, that's pretty
• 22:05
  Speaker 3: much the end of the story. In less there's something
• 22:07
  Speaker 3: else in the system whose gravity is perturbing them. But
• 22:10
  Speaker 3: let's say you can bring the objects close enough together.
• 22:13
  Speaker 3: And this isn't just a case for brand wolfs. Incidentally,
• 22:15
  Speaker 3: it works for other things as well. If you have
• 22:18
  Speaker 3: these objects rotating and they're close enough together, they can
• 22:22
  Speaker 3: tidally interact with one another, and their orbits can change
• 22:26
  Speaker 3: as a result of.
• 22:27
  Speaker 1: That tidal interaction.
• 22:28
  Speaker 3: And we've talked about this before with the fact that
• 22:30
  Speaker 3: the Moon is moving away from the Earth. The Moon
• 22:33
  Speaker 3: has one face pointed towards the Earth all the time,
• 22:35
  Speaker 3: but the Earth is slowly spinning slower and slower, and
• 22:38
  Speaker 3: the Moon is moving away as a result. So that's
• 22:41
  Speaker 3: the tidal interaction between the two acting to change the
• 22:44
  Speaker 3: orbit of the Moon. Now, because the Moon's orbital period
• 22:47
  Speaker 3: is longer than the time it takes the Earth to rotate,
• 22:50
  Speaker 3: that process is acting to cause the Moon to move
• 22:53
  Speaker 3: away from the Earth, not towards us. But if you
• 22:56
  Speaker 3: went to Mars, the innermost of Mars and Tu moons,
• 22:58
  Speaker 3: which is Phobos, is closer to Mars than that cor
• 23:02
  Speaker 3: rotation speed. So Phoebos orbits with an orbital period quicker
• 23:05
  Speaker 3: than Mars's spin wred. So the tidal intraction between those
• 23:09
  Speaker 3: is causing Phoebos to actually slow down in its orbit,
• 23:12
  Speaker 3: for its orbit to get quicker and quicker and closer
• 23:14
  Speaker 3: and closer, and will eventually cause Forebos to crash into Mars. Well,
• 23:18
  Speaker 3: we'll probably break apart form a ring and bits of
• 23:20
  Speaker 3: it will rain down on Mars in twenty to fifty
• 23:22
  Speaker 3: million years in the future. And if I'm having a
• 23:26
  Speaker 3: brain fart and it's actually Demus spiraling inwards, my apologies.
• 23:29
  Speaker 3: But I think Phebos is the closer the two, and
• 23:30
  Speaker 3: that's someone spiraling in So you can get these tidal
• 23:34
  Speaker 3: interactions when you're close enough that can cause the orbit
• 23:38
  Speaker 3: to change, but you'll only move inwards if the orbital
• 23:41
  Speaker 3: period is shorter than the rotation period. If the orbital
• 23:45
  Speaker 3: period is longer than the rotation period, you'll move the
• 23:47
  Speaker 3: other way, and you'll move away. The final thing that
• 23:50
  Speaker 3: can happen, well, another way it can happen is you
• 23:54
  Speaker 3: see this for evolved stars. So if a star has
• 23:58
  Speaker 3: a companion and the star gets to the end of
• 24:00
  Speaker 3: its life and swells up to become a red giant,
• 24:03
  Speaker 3: it can get bigger, and then the companion can be
• 24:05
  Speaker 3: moving through the gas and the envelope of that other star,
• 24:08
  Speaker 3: which provides a headwind, and that can cause its spiraling
• 24:10
  Speaker 3: towards a close encounter as well. Now, sometimes that will
• 24:13
  Speaker 3: just lead to one star numbing up another one and
• 24:16
  Speaker 3: devouring it, and that's all good. But sometimes what that
• 24:19
  Speaker 3: leaves you with is two evolved stars very close together,
• 24:22
  Speaker 3: and that can be we see with binary neutron stars,
• 24:25
  Speaker 3: binary white dwarfs, partnerships between black holes and neutron stars,
• 24:28
  Speaker 3: all sorts. In recent years have been all these detection
• 24:31
  Speaker 3: of gravitational waves from colliding stars, and they're all from
• 24:35
  Speaker 3: black holes coliding with each other on neutron stars coliding
• 24:38
  Speaker 3: with each other. And that's because those two black holes
• 24:41
  Speaker 3: or the two neutron stars are very massive, but they're
• 24:44
  Speaker 3: also very close together. So there are effects that are
• 24:47
  Speaker 3: explained in general relativity and essentially make my head hurt.
• 24:51
  Speaker 3: That cause a loss of energy from the binary as
• 24:54
  Speaker 3: it radiates awhere gravitational waves. That causes the orbits to
• 24:58
  Speaker 3: spiral inwards, so in they get the more pronounced this effected,
• 25:02
  Speaker 3: so you get this runaway collapse of the two orbits
• 25:04
  Speaker 3: and they end up hitting each other in.
• 25:06
  Speaker 1: A big burst of gravitational waves.
• 25:08
  Speaker 3: I think it's unlikely that'll apply to brown dwarfs, but
• 25:11
  Speaker 3: that's another way they could spiral in so coming back
• 25:14
  Speaker 3: out from that. In general, if they're quite far apart,
• 25:17
  Speaker 3: there is no risk of them ever colliding. If they're
• 25:19
  Speaker 3: really close together, it's possible. Now the final bit about
• 25:22
  Speaker 3: could they turn into a star, It's all about the
• 25:25
  Speaker 3: mass you get. If you have enough mass, then the
• 25:28
  Speaker 3: temperature and pressure in the car will get in the
• 25:30
  Speaker 3: core will get high enough for hydrogen fusion to start,
• 25:33
  Speaker 3: hydrogen to turn to helium, and that's when it will
• 25:36
  Speaker 3: really turn on as a star. Now, if you had
• 25:39
  Speaker 3: two very massive brown dwarfs that are each not quite
• 25:41
  Speaker 3: massive enough to be a star, and if you add
• 25:43
  Speaker 3: them together, you'd suddenly be massive enough to be a star,
• 25:46
  Speaker 3: and you might be able to cross that threshold. Now,
• 25:49
  Speaker 3: we do see some examples of objects out there that
• 25:52
  Speaker 3: are thought to probably be cases where two stars have
• 25:55
  Speaker 3: merged and form a more massive star that looks out
• 25:58
  Speaker 3: of place, and where this whole six in my mind
• 26:00
  Speaker 3: of these objects called globular clusters, these massive spherical clusters
• 26:04
  Speaker 3: of stars that are incredibly old. They're among the oldest
• 26:08
  Speaker 3: things in the galaxy, and famous examples in our southern sky,
• 26:11
  Speaker 3: things like Omega centauri forty seven Takhani, things like this.
• 26:15
  Speaker 3: So you've got spherical bowler stars held together under gravity
• 26:19
  Speaker 3: that is very old. And because sales clusters are very old,
• 26:21
  Speaker 3: you don't expect them to have massive blue stars in them,
• 26:25
  Speaker 3: because there's been no star formation recently in stars that
• 26:27
  Speaker 3: are massive and blue live fast and die up, so
• 26:31
  Speaker 3: they should be gone. But there's a small group of
• 26:33
  Speaker 3: stars that have been identified called blue stragglers and the
• 26:36
  Speaker 3: cold stragglers because should not be there. And for a
• 26:39
  Speaker 3: long time there was puzzlement as to where these have
• 26:41
  Speaker 3: come from, and I think there currently accepted wisdom is
• 26:44
  Speaker 3: a blue straggler is what you get when you get
• 26:46
  Speaker 3: two small or less massive and therefore longer lived stars
• 26:50
  Speaker 3: that have merged, forming a more massive star that burns
• 26:53
  Speaker 3: brighter and hotter. So you see what looks like a
• 26:56
  Speaker 3: young hot star that is a product of two older
• 26:59
  Speaker 3: cool stars merge. So you can't get things for us
• 27:03
  Speaker 3: dollar sized off stella musk merging with one another to
• 27:06
  Speaker 3: form a star, but it's unlikely to happen with any
• 27:09
  Speaker 3: given set of brown dwarfs.
• 27:12
  Speaker 2: Okay, yeah, I get it. Actually that all made perfect sense. Actually,
• 27:16
  Speaker 2: I saw a story last or the other day about
• 27:19
  Speaker 2: a young hot star that didn't win any Grammys.
• 27:21
  Speaker 3: So rob even more hydrogen. Yes, yes, thank you know
• 27:28
  Speaker 3: II Jill.
• 27:29
  Speaker 2: Hopefully we covered everything with your brown dwarf analogy. Okay,
• 27:35
  Speaker 2: we take a space nuts. Finally, a text question from Paddy.
• 27:41
  Speaker 2: I am going to assume this is Paddy the roof Tyler,
• 27:44
  Speaker 2: but it could be wrong. There could be more than
• 27:46
  Speaker 2: one Paddy listening to us, especially if it's Ireland. I've
• 27:49
  Speaker 2: got a feeling this this is the Australian version. Love
• 27:52
  Speaker 2: the show.
• 27:52
  Speaker 1: Keep up the great work.
• 27:54
  Speaker 2: Since the episode on Mars quakes. I've been thinking about
• 27:56
  Speaker 2: their origins. We know that the orbits of all the
• 27:59
  Speaker 2: planets slowly expanding, meaning that they are moving away from
• 28:04
  Speaker 2: the Sun and they're cooling. Now, given that a molderen
• 28:09
  Speaker 2: rock cools crystal's form, and the slower cools, the larger
• 28:13
  Speaker 2: the crystals, could it be possible that the internal structure
• 28:16
  Speaker 2: of Mars is laced with veins of crystallizing rock that
• 28:20
  Speaker 2: is fracturing, which is the instrument for the quakes. Shortly
• 28:25
  Speaker 2: after the Mars quakes episode, there were reports of the
• 28:28
  Speaker 2: possibility of water below the surface of Mars. This made
• 28:31
  Speaker 2: me think that perhaps the quakes may be the result
• 28:34
  Speaker 2: of liquid water freezing, thus expanding and fracturing the surrounding rock.
• 28:39
  Speaker 2: This thought of the internal structure of Mars being fractured
• 28:42
  Speaker 2: led me to the question of is it possible that
• 28:45
  Speaker 2: Mars could break up? And if so, is it possible
• 28:48
  Speaker 2: that this process could be the origin of the asteroid
• 28:52
  Speaker 2: belt when another planet broke up as it's orbit drifted
• 28:57
  Speaker 2: further away.
• 28:58
  Speaker 1: From the Sun.
• 28:59
  Speaker 2: Thank you both, and thank you to Hue Jeez Petty.
• 29:03
  Speaker 2: He's been thinking a lot about this. I would suspect
• 29:07
  Speaker 2: that Mars breaking up would not be likely.
• 29:10
  Speaker 3: Due to gravity.
• 29:13
  Speaker 1: Gravity wins for Mars. For this I figured that.
• 29:16
  Speaker 2: But internal movement, you know, the cooling of the planet perhaps,
• 29:21
  Speaker 2: or the expansion of frozen ice.
• 29:24
  Speaker 1: Interesting series.
• 29:25
  Speaker 3: There's a lot of interesting stuff to unpack here. So
• 29:28
  Speaker 3: the effect of an object cooling causing some degree of
• 29:32
  Speaker 3: quakes is actually fairly well established. I think now what
• 29:36
  Speaker 3: needs to be remembered is that most things, when they.
• 29:38
  Speaker 1: Cool actually contract.
• 29:40
  Speaker 3: Water is really unusual. In the water ice that's near
• 29:43
  Speaker 3: zere always bigger than the m volume of liquid water
• 29:45
  Speaker 3: at the same temperature. For most materials, they're actually smaller
• 29:49
  Speaker 3: the cooler they get. So what this has led to
• 29:53
  Speaker 3: is on the Moon and on Mercury there are evidence
• 29:55
  Speaker 3: of very unusual faulting structures which are thought to be
• 29:59
  Speaker 3: the result of the interior cooling and shrinking. And then
• 30:02
  Speaker 3: you get this cracking of the surface as the surface
• 30:05
  Speaker 3: tries to drop essentially, and that of course leads to quakes.
• 30:08
  Speaker 3: Now believe that quite a number of the quakes that
• 30:11
  Speaker 3: are detected on the Moon and thought to have this
• 30:13
  Speaker 3: kind of origin. You've then got the kind of freeze
• 30:17
  Speaker 3: though processes that we're seeing, you know, growing up in
• 30:19
  Speaker 3: the UK. The roads they get potholes far worse than
• 30:21
  Speaker 3: we get here in Queensland, even though all the locals
• 30:24
  Speaker 3: on the Facebook book groups keep complaining about the potholes there,
• 30:27
  Speaker 3: which holes makes me laugh. The reason we get so
• 30:29
  Speaker 3: many potholes up in the UK is because of freeze thaws.
• 30:32
  Speaker 3: So if you get a very narrow crack and you
• 30:34
  Speaker 3: get water in it, that water then freezers, it becomes
• 30:38
  Speaker 3: ice and it expands, which is unusual. Like I said,
• 30:40
  Speaker 3: water behaves oddly and that fractures the road, so you
• 30:43
  Speaker 3: get this runaway fracturing of the surface. This on a
• 30:46
  Speaker 3: different scale you also see in the degradation of rocks
• 30:50
  Speaker 3: in places like the High Alcs, because as rocks heat
• 30:53
  Speaker 3: up and cool down, they expand and contract and that
• 30:56
  Speaker 3: leads to cracking and fracturing. This is an important process,
• 31:00
  Speaker 3: particularly for my favorite metia shower, the Geminids. The geminids
• 31:03
  Speaker 3: have a parent object that is Phyton, which often described
• 31:06
  Speaker 3: as a rock comet, and Phyton has ridiculous temperature ranges
• 31:10
  Speaker 3: through itself a bit. When it's nearest to sun, it's
• 31:11
  Speaker 3: about seven hundred and fifty degrees. When it's furthest from
• 31:14
  Speaker 3: the sunn it's one hundred degrees below freezing and more.
• 31:17
  Speaker 3: And that's a huge range of temperatures over a couple
• 31:19
  Speaker 3: of years. And one of the explanations for the Geminid
• 31:23
  Speaker 3: Metia shower is that the rocks on Fifhon are persistently
• 31:26
  Speaker 3: being crapped and fractured by this free saughtapp process by
• 31:29
  Speaker 3: the heating and cooling, and then the dust gets kicked
• 31:32
  Speaker 3: off the surface of the asteroid spreading out in space
• 31:35
  Speaker 3: to give us a debris stream that we get for
• 31:37
  Speaker 3: the Metia shower. So there is a lot to that there.
• 31:41
  Speaker 3: In terms of the quakes on Mars, I think that
• 31:45
  Speaker 3: a lot of them are being linked. We've got the
• 31:47
  Speaker 3: ones that are linked to impacts, so asteroid hits Mars
• 31:49
  Speaker 3: and Mars orins like a bell and you get a
• 31:51
  Speaker 3: Mars quack. You then have ones that we talked about before,
• 31:54
  Speaker 3: which are linked to that kind of residual tectonic energy
• 31:57
  Speaker 3: and the heat movement within Mars. I think there have
• 32:00
  Speaker 3: been situestions that some of them are probably also down
• 32:02
  Speaker 3: to the cooling of the interior and that kind of
• 32:05
  Speaker 3: cracking and faulting. So it is a process that would
• 32:07
  Speaker 3: come into play there. However, it's probably not what caused
• 32:12
  Speaker 3: the asteroid belt. So the asteroid belt is often portrayed
• 32:15
  Speaker 3: in kind of science fiction as a planet that was destroyed,
• 32:18
  Speaker 3: and it's probably fairer to describe it as a planet
• 32:20
  Speaker 3: that never got to be. The total mass of the
• 32:23
  Speaker 3: asteroid belt as we see it now is way less
• 32:25
  Speaker 3: than the Moon, but it was more in the past.
• 32:28
  Speaker 3: But Jupiter's the villain here. So when the planets were forming,
• 32:32
  Speaker 3: Jupiter formed quicker because it's a little bit beyond what
• 32:35
  Speaker 3: we call the snow line, so all the water that's
• 32:38
  Speaker 3: out there, and as we said earlier in the podcast,
• 32:39
  Speaker 3: water is one of the most common molecules in the universe.
• 32:43
  Speaker 3: Jupiter was fair enough from the Sun that that water
• 32:45
  Speaker 3: was ice, whereas in the inner Solar System it was gas.
• 32:48
  Speaker 3: So suddenly, when you've got water ice, you've got a
• 32:50
  Speaker 3: lot more solid material to build planets from. So Jupiter
• 32:53
  Speaker 3: grew really quickly, and as it mass got bigger, its
• 32:56
  Speaker 3: gravitational reach got more impactful, and it started stirring up
• 32:59
  Speaker 3: the ashoid belt. That excitation meant that the average orbits
• 33:04
  Speaker 3: of the asteroids were stirred up more, and so instead
• 33:06
  Speaker 3: of the collisions between them being gentle enough to stick together,
• 33:09
  Speaker 3: they entered a range where the collisions are destructive instead,
• 33:12
  Speaker 3: they're colliding hard enough to smash apart. So Jupiter abridged
• 33:15
  Speaker 3: the formation of a planet in that region by stirring
• 33:18
  Speaker 3: things up so much that they couldn't collide and a
• 33:20
  Speaker 3: crete anymore. So the asteroid belt isn't so much a
• 33:24
  Speaker 3: planet that broke up as a planet that never got
• 33:26
  Speaker 3: to form. And that's all thanks to Jupiter doing its
• 33:30
  Speaker 3: thing and stirring everything up. So I think we've covered
• 33:34
  Speaker 3: everything padi as there. I hope we've covered everything padi
• 33:36
  Speaker 3: ass there. But yeah, there's a lot of good stuff
• 33:38
  Speaker 3: in there.
• 33:39
  Speaker 2: I might just add that some of the Earth some
• 33:42
  Speaker 2: of the Mars quakes that have been detected are also
• 33:46
  Speaker 2: being put down to media rite strikes.
• 33:48
  Speaker 3: Yes, so they're the asteroids hitting it make it ring
• 33:51
  Speaker 3: like a bell. And that was part of the reason
• 33:52
  Speaker 3: we put the size montron Mars in the first place,
• 33:54
  Speaker 3: was to detecting things.
• 33:56
  Speaker 2: Yeah, okay, there you go, Thanks Peddy, great question. Good
• 34:00
  Speaker 2: to hear from you, and don't forget. If you've got
• 34:02
  Speaker 2: a question for us for our Q and A episodes,
• 34:05
  Speaker 2: please go to our website and send them in. It's
• 34:07
  Speaker 2: as simple as going to space Nuts podcast dot com
• 34:11
  Speaker 2: and clicking on the little ama thing at the top.
• 34:14
  Speaker 2: And if you want to send us a text question,
• 34:16
  Speaker 2: you can do that, or you can send us an
• 34:18
  Speaker 2: audio question. If you've got a device with a microphone,
• 34:21
  Speaker 2: that's all you need. And don't forget to tell us
• 34:23
  Speaker 2: who you are and where you're from. Johnty, thank you
• 34:26
  Speaker 2: so much for answering all of those questions. I'm going
• 34:28
  Speaker 2: to make you do it again next week.
• 34:30
  Speaker 1: Solward's pleasure. It's good fun. Thank you for having me.
• 34:33
  Speaker 2: Thank you, Johnny, Professor John T. Horner from the University
• 34:37
  Speaker 2: of Southern Queensland. And look, Hugh in the studio was
• 34:41
  Speaker 2: a no show again today. Now a lot of people
• 34:43
  Speaker 2: ask us if Hugh is real. I'm starting to think
• 34:48
  Speaker 2: you might be right that he doesn't exist. And from
• 34:52
  Speaker 2: me Andrew Dunkley, thanks to your company. Catch you on
• 34:54
  Speaker 2: the very next episode of Space Nuts.
• 34:57
  Speaker 3: Bye bye, Thank Nuts.
• 34:59
  Speaker 4: You'll be this to the Space Nuts podcast.
• 35:03
  Speaker 3: Available at Apple Podcasts, Spotify, iHeartRadio, or your favorite podcast player.
• 35:09
  Speaker 3: You can also stream on demand at bytes dot com.
• 35:13
  Speaker 2: This has been another quality podcast production from nights dot
• 35:16
  Speaker 2: com