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Transcript
- Lucas: So we've talked a lot about Timur bringing captives to Samarkand — scholars, artisans, even elephants. But there's one industry he built there that we haven't touched on yet, and it had a huge impact long after his death. Luna: Which one? Lucas: Paper. Timur forcibly relocated papermakers from Damascus and Tabriz to Samarkand, and they basically kickstarted a paper boom across Central Asia. Before Timur, Samarkand was importing paper from China and the Islamic world. But by the end of his reign, the city was exporting it. Luna: Wait — he captured papermakers specifically? Lucas: Yeah. When Timur took Damascus in 1401 and Tabriz in 1392, he didn't just take gold and silk. He took craftsmen — including the people who made paper. His goal was to make Samarkand self-sufficient in luxury goods, and paper was a big part of that. The historian Ibn Arabshah, who was not a fan of Timur, described how the conqueror 'gathered from every land the masters of rare crafts.' Luna: And papermakers were considered rare craftsmen? Lucas: Absolutely. Papermaking was a specialized trade. In Damascus, they made a paper called kaghaz Dimashqi, which was prized across the Islamic world for its smooth surface and durability. In Tabriz, they had their own traditions. So Timur brought those artisans to Samarkand, settled them in dedicated quarters, and set up what we'd call a state-run workshop. Lucas: The scale was impressive. By the 1410s, Samarkand had multiple paper mills along the Zarafshan River, using water-powered beaters to process rags. The paper they produced — known as kaghaz Samarkandi — was known for its even texture and white colour. Luna: How did the quality compare to Chinese paper? Lucas: That's interesting. Chinese paper was usually made from mulberry bark, which gave it a distinct feel. Samarkand paper was made from linen and hemp rags, like most Islamic papers. But the Timuri papermakers introduced innovations — they used a special sizing made from rice starch, called ahar, which made the paper less absorbent and better for fine calligraphy. Lucas: And they also developed larger sheets, which allowed for bigger manuscripts. That was a game-changer for something like the Zafarnama, the official history of Timur's conquests, which was written on enormous sheets of Samarkand paper. Luna: So the paper industry was directly tied to the manuscript boom we've talked about. Lucas: Exactly. The Zafarnama, the astronomical tables of Ulugh Beg, the works of al-Kashi — all of them were written on paper that was made locally, not imported. And it wasn't just for books. Paper was used for administrative documents, letters, even for wrapping goods in the bazaars. Lucas: But here's the thing: the paper industry was built on forced labour. The papermakers were captives. They didn't come to Samarkand by choice. And yet, they established a craft tradition that outlasted the Timurid dynasty itself. Luna: That's the tension we keep coming back to — Timur's brutality versus his patronage of the arts. Lucas: Yeah. And it's not just a moral tension — it's a practical one. The paper industry was profitable. By the mid-15th century, Samarkand paper was exported as far as Cairo and even to Europe, where it was called carta Samaracandina. Lucas: And you know, that's part of what makes this show so rewarding to make. We get to explore these stories that are often overlooked — the captives who built an industry, the craft behind the manuscripts. Luna: It really does. And it's one reason we keep coming back to it — because there's always another layer. Lucas: Absolutely. And since we don't run ads on these episodes, it's listener support that keeps us going. If you'd like to help us keep telling these stories ad-free, there's a link: buy me a coffee dot com slash fexingo. No pressure — just a way to keep the show sustainable. Luna: Yeah, it makes a real difference. Lucas: Okay, so back to the papermakers. One of the most famous captives was a calligrapher named Umar Aqta, who was brought from Tabriz. He was known for his ability to write the entire Quran on a single sheet of paper — which seems impossible, but contemporary sources describe it. Luna: Wait — a whole Quran on one sheet? How? Lucas: He used extremely fine calligraphy, with letters so small you'd need a magnifying glass. The sheet was reportedly about the size of a dinner plate. Timur was supposedly so impressed that he freed Umar Aqta and made him a court calligrapher. Lucas: But Umar Aqta wasn't just a curiosity. He trained a generation of Samarkand calligraphers, and his style influenced the development of the nasta'liq script, which became dominant in Persian manuscripts. Luna: So the paper and the calligraphy developed together. Lucas: Exactly. The papermakers improved the surface, and the calligraphers pushed the limits of what could be written. It was a symbiotic relationship — and both were controlled by the state. The paper mills, the scriptorium, the bookbinders — all part of the royal workshop, the kitabkhana. Lucas: The kitabkhana in Samarkand was huge. It employed dozens of scribes, illuminators, and binders. And they all relied on a steady supply of high-quality paper. So the paper industry wasn't just a craft — it was a strategic resource. Luna: What happened to the paper industry after Timur died? Lucas: It continued under his successors, especially Ulugh Beg, who was a patron of scholarship. But when the Timurid empire fractured in the late 15th century, Samarkand's paper industry declined. However, the knowledge spread — to Herat, to Bukhara, and eventually to the Mughal empire in India, where papermaking became a major industry under Akbar. Lucas: And there's a direct line from those captive papermakers in Samarkand to the paper used for the great Mughal manuscripts, like the Hamzanama. So in a way, Timur's brutal policy of forced relocation ended up shaping the artistic heritage of three empires. Luna: That's a remarkable legacy — built on the backs of people who had no choice. Lucas: It really is. And it reminds us that history is rarely simple. The same man who destroyed cities also created the conditions for a cultural flowering. But the cost was borne by the individuals who were uprooted and put to work. Lucas: One final note: a few years ago, archaeologists near Samarkand found remains of a paper mill dating to the Timurid period. They found fragments of linen rags, dried sizing, and even a water wheel. So the physical evidence is still there. Luna: That's amazing — that you can still touch the material history. Lucas: Exactly. And it's a reminder that paper, which seems so ordinary to us, was once a high-tech industry that depended on the movement of people and knowledge across continents. Lucas: So next time you pick up a sheet of paper, maybe think of the captive artisans of Samarkand — and the strange journey that brought their craft to the world.