Latest / Majapahit: The Empire That Once Ruled Indonesia — Fexingo History / Majapahit's Kertanagara: The King Who Defied the Mongols
Transcript
- Lucas: So we've talked a lot about Majapahit's peak under Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada, and about its twilight under Brawijaya. But I want to go back to the very beginning—before Majapahit even existed—to the king who made it all possible. Luna: You mean someone before Raden Wijaya? Lucas: Exactly. Before Raden Wijaya founded Majapahit in 1293, there was the kingdom of Singhasari in East Java. And its last king was a man named Kertanagara. He ruled from about 1268 to 1292, and he had this audacious plan: to unite all of Nusantara under one Javanese empire. Sound familiar? Luna: That's basically the same idea Gajah Mada had with his Palapa Oath, isn't it? Lucas: Right. But Kertanagara was earlier, and he did it in a very different way. He was a devout Tantric Buddhist—a follower of the Bhairawa cult. And he used religion, marriage alliances, and military expeditions to expand his influence. The most famous of these was the Pamalayu expedition in 1275, which sent a fleet to the Malayu kingdom in Sumatra. Luna: Pamalayu—that's the same campaign we touched on in the Malayu episode? Lucas: Yes, that one. But the real reason I want to talk about Kertanagara is because of what happened next. He got into a direct confrontation with the largest empire on earth at the time: the Mongol Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan. Luna: A Javanese king picking a fight with the Mongols? That sounds suicidal. Lucas: It does. And it almost was. In 1289, Kublai Khan sent envoys to Singhasari demanding tribute and submission. Kertanagara's response was... not diplomatic. He had the envoys mutilated—cut off their ears and noses—and sent them back to China. Luna: Wow. That's a declaration of war. Lucas: Absolutely. Kublai was furious. He started preparing a massive punitive expedition, but it took him a few years to get it ready. Meanwhile, Kertanagara was consolidating his power. He even sent a statue of himself as Akshobhya, a Buddha, to the Malayu court to symbolize their alliance. That statue was discovered in the 20th century at Padang Roco in Sumatra. Luna: So he was trying to build a united front against the Mongols? Lucas: That's the theory. But while Kertanagara was preparing for the Mongol invasion, a rebellion broke out at home. In 1292, a vassal named Jayakatwang from Kediri—a rival kingdom—launched a surprise attack on the capital, Kutaraja. Kertanagara was killed during a Tantric Buddhist ceremony. Luna: He was killed while performing a ritual? That's both tragic and ironic. Lucas: It is. But here's where the story twists. Kertanagara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, escaped the attack. He fled to Madura, then later opened negotiations with the arriving Mongol fleet under Shi-bi, Gao Xing, and Ike Mese. He pretended to submit to the Mongols and used them to defeat Jayakatwang. Then he turned on the Mongols, ambushed them, and founded Majapahit on the ruins. Luna: So Kertanagara's defiance created the opening for Majapahit to be born. Lucas: Exactly. Kertanagara never got to see his vision realized, but he set the ideological and political stage. His concept of a united archipelago, his use of Tantric Buddhism as a state religion, and his aggressive diplomacy all became templates for Majapahit. Even the famous motto 'Bhinneka Tunggal Ika'—Unity in Diversity—comes from the Sutasoma kakawin, a poem that was heavily influenced by Tantric Buddhism. Luna: I had no idea that motto was that old, or that it had Buddhist roots. Lucas: It's from the 14th century, written by Mpu Tantular. But the ideas were already in the air during Kertanagara's time. And there's a physical remnant of his reign that's still standing: Candi Jago, a temple in East Java built around 1280. It's covered in reliefs from the Tantric Buddhist texts, including scenes from the Kunjarakarna and the Sutasoma. Luna: I'd love to see that temple. But how much do we really know about Kertanagara? Are there good sources? Lucas: There are a few. The main Javanese source is the Pararaton, or 'Book of Kings', which covers Singhasari and early Majapahit. It's written in Old Javanese and dates from the 15th or 16th century. Then there's the Nagarakertagama, which mentions Kertanagara and his posthumous deification. And the Chinese Yuan dynasty records, particularly the Yuanshi, the official history of the Yuan, have a detailed account of the Mongol expedition to Java. Luna: So we have both local and Chinese perspectives? Lucas: Yes, and they complement each other. The Chinese records confirm the mutilation of the envoys and the Mongol expedition. They also describe Raden Wijaya's betrayal. It's one of those rare cases where we can cross-reference. But there are still debates. For example, some scholars argue that Kertanagara's 'Pamalayu' was not a military conquest but a diplomatic mission to secure an alliance against the Mongols. Luna: Which interpretation do you lean toward? Lucas: I think it was a mix—a show of force meant to intimidate and form an alliance. The fact that he sent a statue of himself as a Buddha suggests he was trying to create a personal, religious bond with the Malayu king. That's more subtle than outright conquest. But we don't have enough evidence to be sure. Luna: It's interesting that his ambitions were so similar to Gajah Mada's, but he's not as famous. Lucas: Part of that is because he lost. He died before he could see his plans succeed. Gajah Mada, on the other hand, lived to see much of his oath fulfilled. And of course, Majapahit's golden age under Hayam Wuruk overshadows everything that came before. But without Kertanagara, there might not have been a Majapahit at all. Luna: He took on the Mongols and lost, but his legacy lived on through his son-in-law. Lucas: Exactly. It's a story of hubris, tragedy, and unintended consequences. Kertanagara's defiance cost him his life, but it also set the stage for one of the greatest empires in Southeast Asian history. Luna: So if Kertanagara had just paid tribute to Kublai, Majapahit might never have been born? Lucas: That's a fascinating counterfactual. If he had submitted, the Mongols might have left Singhasari as a vassal state, and Raden Wijaya might never have had the opportunity to play both sides. But then again, the Mongols were known for extracting heavy tribute, and that could have drained the kingdom. It's hard to say. But history is full of these turning points where one person's decision changes everything. Luna: Makes you wonder what other 'what ifs' are hidden in Majapahit's past. Lucas: Oh, plenty. And we'll get to some of them in future episodes. But for now, I think we've painted a decent picture of the king who dared to say no to the Mongols.