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Plato Part 1: The Philosopher & His Times · The Occult Rejects

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  Speaker 1: You see somethings are going to happen. What's going to happen? What?
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  Speaker 1: There are names in history that don't just belong to
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  Speaker 1: the past. They feel like forces, not because they are perfect,
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  Speaker 1: not because they were always right, but because once they're
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  Speaker 1: ideas into the world, the world can never quite go
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  Speaker 1: back to what it was before. Plato is one of
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  Speaker 1: those names. When people talk about Western thought, philosophy, metaphysics,
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  Speaker 1: the soul, the nature of reality, or even the way
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  Speaker 1: our society imagines truth and illusion, they are often walking
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  Speaker 1: through the rooms Plato helped build. Whether we realize it
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  Speaker 1: or not, we still live inside questions he made impossible
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  Speaker 1: to ignore. What is real? What is merely appearance? What
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  Speaker 1: makes a life worth living? What is justice? What is
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  Speaker 1: the soul? And above all, how does a human being
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  Speaker 1: climb out of ignorance and into something like clarity. That's
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  Speaker 1: why this isn't just going to be one episode. This
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  Speaker 1: is a multi part series because Plato isn't a topic
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  Speaker 1: you cover. Plato is a labyrinth, and once you step inside,
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  Speaker 1: you start seeing echoes of his thought everywhere in politics
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  Speaker 1: and religion, in mysticism and psychology, and education, and empire
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  Speaker 1: and art, in the way modern people argue online about
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  Speaker 1: truth as if they're changed in a cave, watching shadows
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  Speaker 1: and calling it reality. Plato isn't just a philosopher. He's
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  Speaker 1: a map of how civilizations dream, rationalize, justify, and mythologize
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  Speaker 1: their world. So here's how we're doing it. In Part one,
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  Speaker 1: we're going to start where every real understanding begins with
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  Speaker 1: the human being, not Plato the statue, not Plato the textbook.
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  Speaker 1: Plato the man born into the chaos of athnices, shaped
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  Speaker 1: by war and political collapse, and haunted by one event
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  Speaker 1: that marks his history like a scar, the trial and
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  Speaker 1: execution of Socrates. We'll explore the world that produced him,
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  Speaker 1: the culture of the police, the spiritual mythic atmosphere of
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  Speaker 1: Greek religion, the intellectual background of sophis and statesmen, and
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  Speaker 1: the personal shock that turned a young aristocrat into a
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  Speaker 1: lifelong architect of ideas. The first part is about the
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  Speaker 1: origin story, because you can't understand Plato's obsession with justice, truth,
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  Speaker 1: and the soul unless you understand the world that convinced
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  Speaker 1: him that society was sick and that most people mistake
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  Speaker 1: confidence for wisdom. Then in Part two we descend into
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  Speaker 1: Plato's major works his dialogues. Because Plato doesn't lecture you,
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  Speaker 1: he drops you in conversations. He stages philosophy like a drama.
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  Speaker 1: And inside those dialogues are some of the most influential
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  Speaker 1: concepts ever written. The theory of forms, the tripartite soul,
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  Speaker 1: the education of the philosopher, the nature of love as
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  Speaker 1: spiritual assent, and yes, the allegory of the Cave, one
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  Speaker 1: of the most haunting metaphors ever produced for the human condition.
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  Speaker 1: Part two is where we go deeper. We're not just
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  Speaker 1: summarizing what he said. We're going to unpack what he meant,
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  Speaker 1: why it mattered, how the ideas connect, and why they
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  Speaker 1: still shape the way modern people talk about knowledge, reality, morality,
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  Speaker 1: and even enlightenment. And finally, in Part three, me and
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  Speaker 1: the crew are coming on together for a full discussion episode,
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  Speaker 1: the Roundtable. Because Plato is the kind of thinker you
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  Speaker 1: don't just read, You argue with him, You test him,
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  Speaker 1: You bring his ideas into the modern world and see
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  Speaker 1: what survives the collision. That's where we'll take everything from
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  Speaker 1: parts one in part two and put it on the table.
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  Speaker 1: The Cave, the forms, the philosopher, King, the soul, love, myth, reason, power,
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  Speaker 1: and whether Plato was building a ladder to truth or
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  Speaker 1: designing a beautiful prison with a perfect blueprint. And here's
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  Speaker 1: the real reason we're doing it as a crew discussion.
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  Speaker 1: Plato's dialogues were never meant to be passive. They're meant
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  Speaker 1: to be alive. They're meant to provoke. Plato wrote conversations
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  Speaker 1: so that the reader becomes the missing speaker, the one
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  Speaker 1: who has to decide what's true, what's dangerous, and what's
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  Speaker 1: still worth keeping. So welcome to the series. This is Plato,
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  Speaker 1: not as a dry chapter in a textbook, but as
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  Speaker 1: a living force that still shadows a modern mind, a
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  Speaker 1: philosopher whose questions can feel like a lantern or an
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  Speaker 1: interrogation light. A man who asked what reality is and
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  Speaker 1: then dared to suggest that most of us have never
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  Speaker 1: actually seen it. And if Plato is right, if the
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  Speaker 1: world is a cave, then the only question that matters
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  Speaker 1: is who's brave enough to walk out. Plato arrived in
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  Speaker 1: the world just as classical Athens was passing from the
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  Speaker 1: brilliance of Periclean grandeur into the long shadow of the
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  Speaker 1: Peloponnesian War, Born into an old aristocratic family. The boy
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  Speaker 1: grew up amid political upheaval, public debate, and a culture
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  Speaker 1: still flush with dramatic poetry an astonishing aristocratic innovation. Point
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  Speaker 1: into an old aristocratic family, the boy grew up amid
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  Speaker 1: political upheaval, public debate, and a culture still flushed with
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  Speaker 1: dramatic poetry and astonishing artistic innovation. This was the city
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  Speaker 1: of Sophocles and Aristophanes, of the Sophists who sold wisdom
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  Speaker 1: for a fee, and of Socrates, who gave it away
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  Speaker 1: at the price of relentless self examination. In that charge atmosphere,
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  Speaker 1: Plato first learned that ideas could rouse armies, topple governments,
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  Speaker 1: and remake individual lives. As a young man, he encounted
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  Speaker 1: Socrates and quickly exchanged his family's traditional path of statemanship
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  Speaker 1: for the more radical vocation of philosophy. The eight years
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  Speaker 1: he spent at his teacher's side and the anguish of
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  Speaker 1: watching that teacher condemned and executed by a democratic jury
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  Speaker 1: etched into him the conviction that only genuine knowledge could
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  Speaker 1: ground a just life or a just state. Determined to
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  Speaker 1: discover what such knowledge might be, Plato leth Athens on
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  Speaker 1: a decade long quest that took him to mcgara, southern
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  Speaker 1: Italy and in Sicily, where he studied mathematics with Pythagoreans,
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  Speaker 1: debated tyrants, and very nearly died in slavery. Returning home,
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  Speaker 1: he founded his own school and a sacred olive grove
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  Speaker 1: outside the city walls. The academy a community devoted to geometry, astronomy, music,
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  Speaker 1: and above all, dialectic. From that sanctuary flowed the dialogues,
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  Speaker 1: dramatic conversations in which the historical figures of Socrates becomes
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  Speaker 1: a mouthpiece for some of the boldest ideas ever proposed.
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  Speaker 1: From that sanctuary flowed the dialogues, dramatic conversations in which
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  Speaker 1: the historical figure of Socrates becomes a mouthpiece for some
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  Speaker 1: of the boldest ideas ever proposed. The theory of forms,
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  Speaker 1: the immortality of the soul, the tripartite psyche, the philosopher king,
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  Speaker 1: and the demand that reason governed both city and self. Together,
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  Speaker 1: those writings formed the first great library of Western philosophy,
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  Speaker 1: a unified but never dogmatic exploration of ethics, epistemology, mathematics, art,
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  Speaker 1: and love. They begin with the apologia of a man
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  Speaker 1: unjustly killed and they culminate in a sprawling blueprint for
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  Speaker 1: a society roled by wisdom that arc from courtroom tragedy
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  Speaker 1: to utopian imagination. Frames the life of a thinker who
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  Speaker 1: set the horizon for every serious conversation about truth that
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  Speaker 1: has followed. Wherever a man has taken a position, he
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  Speaker 1: must remain and face the danger without a thought for
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  Speaker 1: death or anything else. Plato, who was born between four
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  Speaker 1: twenty eight and four to twenty seven BCE and died
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  Speaker 1: between three forty eight and three forty seven BCE, was
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  Speaker 1: an ancient Athenian philosopher whose influence on Western thought is immeasurable.
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  Speaker 1: A student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle, he
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  Speaker 1: authored dozens of philosophical dialogues that have shaped ethics, metaphysics, politics,
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  Speaker 1: and education for over to millennia. He also founded the
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  Speaker 1: Academy in Athens, often regarded as the first university in
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  Speaker 1: the Western world. Through his writings, Plato introduced in during
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  Speaker 1: ideas such as the theory of the immortality of the
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  Speaker 1: soul and the ideal of a philosopher king that became
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  Speaker 1: cornerstones of Western philosophy. This episode presents Plato's life. It
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  Speaker 1: explores the historical context of his times, surveys his major
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  Speaker 1: works and ideas, and examined his lasting legacy from antiquity
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  Speaker 1: through the Medieval and Renaissance periods and beyond. Plato was
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  Speaker 1: born in Athens in the closing years of the city's
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  Speaker 1: Golden Age, just as the Peloponnesian War between Athens and
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  Speaker 1: Sparta was beginning to ravage the Greek world. Ancient sources
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  Speaker 1: vary on his birth year, but it is traditionally given
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  Speaker 1: as four twenty eight or four to twenty seven BCE,
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  Speaker 1: about a year after the death of the great statesman Pericles.
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  Speaker 1: He was born into an aristocratic and politically active family.
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  Speaker 1: His father, Ariston of Dame coliis claimed the lineage from
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  Speaker 1: the early kings of Athens, legends tracing back to the
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  Speaker 1: god Poseidon. Plato's mother, Peritione, was related to the famous
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  Speaker 1: lawgiver Salon and came from a distinguished Athenian family. Through
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  Speaker 1: his mother, Plato was also a nephew of Karmedies and
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  Speaker 1: a cousin of Critias. This noble heritage meant Plato grew
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  Speaker 1: up in an environment deeply connected to athens social and
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  Speaker 1: political elite. Plato's birth name was reportedly Aristocles after his grandfather,
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  Speaker 1: but he was given the nickname Platin, meaning broad, either
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  Speaker 1: due to his broad physique or broad forehead by his
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  Speaker 1: wrestling coach. He had two older brothers, Glocon and Adimantus,
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  Speaker 1: and his sister Polton. These brothers famously appeared as characters
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  Speaker 1: in Plato's own dialogue Republic. When Plato was still a boy,
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  Speaker 1: his father, Ariston died and his mother remarried her own uncle, Pyra,
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  Speaker 1: lamps and associate of Pericles. Through that marriage, Plato gained
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  Speaker 1: a half brother, Antiphon. Raised in this world to do household,
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  Speaker 1: young Plato would have received the typical education of an
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  Speaker 1: Athenian gentleman, instruction and grammar, poetry, music, and gymnastics. There
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  Speaker 1: are reports that in his youth Plato wrote poetry and
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  Speaker 1: even staged plays. An anecdote, likely apocryphal, claims that he
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  Speaker 1: had burned his early tragic poems after he fell in
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  Speaker 1: love with philosophy under Socrates. Spell during Plato's childhood was
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  Speaker 1: a city at war and in cultural bloom at once.
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  Speaker 1: The Peloponnesian War from four point thirty one to four
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  Speaker 1: h four BCE brought hardships plague, military expeditions, and eventual
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  Speaker 1: defeat of Athens by Sparta in four h four BCE,
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  Speaker 1: all events that would shape the outlook of Plato's generation.
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  Speaker 1: Despite wartime turbulence, Athens remained the vibrant center of learning
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  Speaker 1: and art. Sophocles and Euripides were producing tragedies, Aristophanes satirized
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  Speaker 1: society and comedies, and the Sophists were traveling teachers who
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  Speaker 1: sparked intellectual debates about virtue and truth. It was in
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  Speaker 1: this milieu that Plato came of age. He who would
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  Speaker 1: proceed alright, should begin from the beauties of earth until
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  Speaker 1: he grasps that wondrous vision, beauty, absolute, simple, and everlasting.
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  Speaker 1: As a young man, Plato became part of the circle
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  Speaker 1: of Socrates, the charismatic philosopher who roamed the Athens challenging
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  Speaker 1: people to examine their lives. Plato likely encountered Socrates in
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  Speaker 1: his late teens or early twenties around four h nine
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  Speaker 1: to four h six BCE, and was profoundly impressed. According
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  Speaker 1: to an ancient story, Plato had been preparing to compete
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  Speaker 1: as a playwright, but upon hearing socrates discourse in the marketplace,
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  Speaker 1: he abandoned literature for philosophy, supposedly remarking, come here, Vulcan,
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  Speaker 1: for Plato needs your aid, as he consigned his poems
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  Speaker 1: to the flames. Whether literally true or not, this tale
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  Speaker 1: illustrates Socrates's powerful influence on the youth. For about eight years,
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  Speaker 1: Plato was a devoted pupil of Socrates, absorbing methods of
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  Speaker 1: relentless questioning now known as the Socratic method. Socrates taught
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  Speaker 1: not by writing treatises, but by engaging in dialogue, questioning
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  Speaker 1: assumptions about piety, justice, courage, and virtue among his fellow citizens.
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  Speaker 1: Plato witnessed first hand socrates mission to spur critical self examination.
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  Speaker 1: Socrates's method and moral conviction left an indelible mark on
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  Speaker 1: play Pato. He later cast Socrates as the principal speaker
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  Speaker 1: in almost all his dialogues, using so crid a conversation
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  Speaker 1: as the vehicle for his own ideas. Athens underwent political
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  Speaker 1: turmoil during this period. In four h four BCE, Plato's relatives, critias,
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  Speaker 1: and charmities were key figures in the oligarchic Thirty Tyrants,
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  Speaker 1: who sees power with Spartan support. After Athens's defeat, Plato
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  Speaker 1: was reportedly invited to join their regime, but he grew
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  Speaker 1: disillusioned as the oligarchs became oppressive. The tyranny fell in
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  Speaker 1: four oh three BCE and democracy was restored. Soon after
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  Speaker 1: the three ninety nine BCE, the Democratic government executed Socrates
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  Speaker 1: on charges of impiety and corrupting the youth. Plato was
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  Speaker 1: about twenty eight and was present at the trial. He
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  Speaker 1: later recounted Socrates's apology defense speech in one of his
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  Speaker 1: earliest writings. The unjust condemnation of his beloved teacher profoundly
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  Speaker 1: affected Plato. In a letter traditionally attributed to him, Plato
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  Speaker 1: wrote that witnessing Socrates's fate made him wary of entering
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  Speaker 1: public life. Indeed, he turned away from any political career,
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  Speaker 1: convinced that neither the oligarchy nor the radical democracy had
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  Speaker 1: delivered wise or just leadership. In the Apology Dialogue, Plato
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  Speaker 1: memorializes Socrates's courage and ideals. Socrates at his trial insists
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  Speaker 1: that he will not give up on philosophizing, famously asserting
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  Speaker 1: that the unexamined life is not worth living. Plato's account
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  Speaker 1: of Socrates' final days, including the Credo where Socrates refuses
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  Speaker 1: to escape prison, upholding his ethical duty to the laws
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  Speaker 1: of Athens and the Fato, which movingly described Socrates discussing
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  Speaker 1: the immortality of the soul before calmly drinking the hemlock poison.
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  Speaker 1: Plato kept Socratic thought alive even after his mentor's death.
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  Speaker 1: After socrates execution, Plato left Athens, a common act of
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  Speaker 1: piety for a disciple, warning his master. So ases indicate
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  Speaker 1: he first joined other Socratic adherents in Mega, a nearby
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  Speaker 1: city under philosopher Euclid of Megra. In subsequent years three
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  Speaker 1: ninety nine to three eighty seven BCE, Plato likely traveled
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  Speaker 1: throughout the Mediterranean world. While details are sparse and sometimes conjectural,
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  Speaker 1: later reports and clues from his letters suggests a period
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  Speaker 1: of wide range traveling Egypt. Plato possibly visited Egypt, the
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  Speaker 1: ancient land of wisdom. The geographer Strabo claimed that in
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  Speaker 1: Heliopolis he was shown the house where Plato stayed. In
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  Speaker 1: dialogues like Feedras, Plato refers to Egyptian law the myth
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  Speaker 1: of the invention of writing, and in the Thimis, he
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  Speaker 1: hints at Egyptian priests recounting the story of Atlantis suggesting
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  Speaker 1: at least a fascination with Egypt, whether or not he
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  Speaker 1: went there, Egyptian civilization's antiquity may have influences thinking about
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  Speaker 1: timeless wisdom and ideal societies. Some accounts have Plato studying
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  Speaker 1: mathematics and syranny with the renowned mathematician Theodorus. Theodorus actually
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  Speaker 1: appears as a character in Plato's later dialogue Theotitis. This
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  Speaker 1: indicates Plato had connections with leading mathematicians of his day,
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  Speaker 1: reinforcing his deep interest in mathematics. Plato certainly traveled to
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  Speaker 1: Greek colonies in southern Italy, where he encountered the followers
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  Speaker 1: of Pythagoras. Pythagorean philosophy, with its emphasis on number, harmony
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  Speaker 1: and the transmigration to souls, made a lasting imprint on
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  Speaker 1: Plato's thought. Diagenes reports that Plato visited several Pythagoreans in
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  Speaker 1: southern Italy, and his own Seventh Letter mentions a friendship
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  Speaker 1: with Architas of Tarentum, a statesman and Pythagorean thinker. Plato's
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  Speaker 1: reverence from mathematics and his notion that abstract forms under
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  Speaker 1: lie reality owe much to Pythagorean ideas. In fact, later
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  Speaker 1: tradition held that a sign at the door of Plato's
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  Speaker 1: academy read let no one ignorant of geometry enter here,
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  Speaker 1: highlighting the Pythagorean Platonic belief in mathematics as a gateway
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  Speaker 1: to higher knowledge. The most momentous journeys, Plato took word
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  Speaker 1: to the island of Sicily, where he became entangled in
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  Speaker 1: the politics and the city of Syracuse. Plato first went
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  Speaker 1: to Sicily around three eighty eight BCE, when he was
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  Speaker 1: about forty. There he met Dionysus, the autocratic tyrant of Syracuse, and,
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  Speaker 1: more faithfully, Dionysus's brother in law, Dion, a young man
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  Speaker 1: who became Plato's ardinate student. There he met Dionysus, the
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  Speaker 1: ortocratic tyrant of Syracuse, and more faithfully, Dionysus's brother in law, Dion,
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  Speaker 1: a young man who became Plato's ardent student and friend.
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  Speaker 1: Plato's teachings fascinated Dion. It appears Plato harbored the ambitious
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  Speaker 1: hope of educating a ruler in philosophy to realize in
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  Speaker 1: practice the vision of a philosopher king that he would
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  Speaker 1: later describe in his Republic. The Sicilian sojourn, however, ended poorly.
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  Speaker 1: Later legends reported by Plutarch and Diogenes, claimed that Pluto
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  Speaker 1: offended the tyrant Dionysus by his frank speech and was
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  Speaker 1: sent into bondage. Allegedly, Dionysus sold Plato into slavery, or
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  Speaker 1: at least had taken him to the slave market of Agina.
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  Speaker 1: Then at war with Athens, Plato was nearly put to
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  Speaker 1: death in captivity at Syrone, but was saved when a
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  Speaker 1: sympathetic Admira and a serious of Syrony purchased his freedom
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  Speaker 1: and sent him home to Athens. While some details are doubtful,
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  Speaker 1: it's clear Plato's first Sicilian adventure was a harrowing lesson
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  Speaker 1: in the clash between idealism and tyranny. He left Syracuse disappointed,
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  Speaker 1: though having forged a deep bond with dion Plato returned
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  Speaker 1: to Athens by three eighty seven BCE. Around this time
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  Speaker 1: he founded the Academy, a school of higher learning that
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  Speaker 1: he would direct for the next four decades. The Academy
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  Speaker 1: was situated in a grove of olive trees just outside
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  Speaker 1: athens walls, a site sacred to the hero Academus, hence
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  Speaker 1: the name it wasn't a formal university as we think
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  Speaker 1: of today, but a function as a gathering place for inquiry,
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  Speaker 1: where philosophy, science, and mathematics were pursued in a community
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  Speaker 1: of teachers and students. The Academy is often cited as
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  Speaker 1: the first and enduring institution devoted to research and philosophy,
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  Speaker 1: the ancestor of later universities. Within its precincts, Plato lectured
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  Speaker 1: and engaged in dialogue with brilliant minds of the era.
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  Speaker 1: Eminent mathematicians like Theotetis, discoverer of geometric truths and Exodus
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  Speaker 1: of Sneidis, and astronomer who developed theories of proportion were
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  Speaker 1: associated with the Academy. Perhaps Plato's greatest pupil, Aristotle entered
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  Speaker 1: the Academy as a teenager in three sixty seven BCE
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  Speaker 1: and studied under Plato for twenty years. The Academy emphasized
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  Speaker 1: a broad curriculum. Students learned mathematics, geometry and arithmetic, astronomy,
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  Speaker 1: music theory, and dialectical philosophy, reflecting Plato's conviction that rigorous
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  Speaker 1: training in science and math prepares the mind for higher
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  Speaker 1: philosophical insight. Plato himself was not a prolific research mathematician,
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  Speaker 1: but he absorbed and integrated the discoveries of others. His
• 18:48
  Speaker 1: dialogues are prepared with mathematical examples and metaphors, and in
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  Speaker 1: Timaeus he even presents a cosmology built on geometry, notably
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  Speaker 1: describing the five regulous solids that are now known as
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  Speaker 1: the Platonic solids and associating them with fundamental elements of
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  Speaker 1: the universe. Except for two further Sicilian expeditions, Plato remained
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  Speaker 1: based at the academy for the rest of his life,
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  Speaker 1: writing and teaching. The academy thrived and endured long after
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  Speaker 1: Plato's death. In fact, Sprucippus, Plato's nephew, succeeded him as
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  Speaker 1: school arc head of the academy, followed by Xenocrats and others,
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  Speaker 1: and the school continued with interruptions until five twenty nine CE,
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  Speaker 1: when the Byzantine Emperor Justinian closed the Pagan philosophical schools.
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  Speaker 1: For almost nine hundred years, Plato's academy stood as a
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  Speaker 1: beacon of learned culture in the Greco Roman world, a
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  Speaker 1: testament to the powerful institution invention of communal scholarly pursued
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  Speaker 1: that Plato had set in motion. The soul is most
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  Speaker 1: like that which is divine, immortal, intelligible, uniform, indissoluble, ever
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  Speaker 1: the same as itself. Plato's philosophical convictions about politics that
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  Speaker 1: rulers should be philosophersally tested in his interactions with the
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  Speaker 1: Rules of Syracuse. After the death of Dionysus in three
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  Speaker 1: sixty seven BCE, Dion urged Plato to make his second
• 20:09
  Speaker 1: journey to Syracuse. The idea was to educate the new
• 20:12
  Speaker 1: young tyrant, Dionysus the Second, in philosophy, hopefully turning him
• 20:16
  Speaker 1: into the just rule of that Syracuse and perhaps the
• 20:19
  Speaker 1: world needed. Though Plato was now in his sixties and
• 20:22
  Speaker 1: an initially skeptical that a true philosopher king could be
• 20:25
  Speaker 1: made out of Dionysus the Second, he eventually agreed to
• 20:28
  Speaker 1: attempt this bold experiment. In three sixty seven or three
• 20:32
  Speaker 1: sixty six BCE, he traveled again to Sicily. Unfortunately, the
• 20:36
  Speaker 1: project unraveled. Dionysus the Second was intellectually fickle and politically insecure.
• 20:42
  Speaker 1: Within a short time, the tyrant grew suspicious of Dion,
• 20:45
  Speaker 1: his uncle and Plato's ally. Dion was exiled, accused of treason,
• 20:49
  Speaker 1: and Plato himself was effectively detained, treated outwardly with honor
• 20:53
  Speaker 1: as a guest, but in reality not allowed to leave
• 20:55
  Speaker 1: the island. Plato had walked into a political snake pit.
• 20:59
  Speaker 1: He was without a friend Dion, trying to counsel on
• 21:02
  Speaker 1: an autocrat who only partially trusted him. After some tense months,
• 21:06
  Speaker 1: Plato convinced Dionysus the Second to let him return home,
• 21:10
  Speaker 1: promising that he would come back once the war was over.
• 21:13
  Speaker 1: Plato returned to Athens, with Dion joining him at the
• 21:16
  Speaker 1: academy for a time. A few years later, Dionysus the
• 21:19
  Speaker 1: Second called for Plato yet again, despite misgivings and his
• 21:24
  Speaker 1: advancing age. Plato a third time sailed to Syracuse around
• 21:27
  Speaker 1: three sixty one BCE, hoping to reconcile Dion and Dionysus
• 21:32
  Speaker 1: and achieved some philosophical influence on the regime. This final
• 21:37
  Speaker 1: Sicilian venture proved the worst. Dionysus the Second not only
• 21:41
  Speaker 1: refused to restore Dion to favor, but once more placed
• 21:44
  Speaker 1: Plato under quasi house arrest. In Syracuse, Plato was isolated
• 21:48
  Speaker 1: and unable to effect meaningful change at court. He escaped
• 21:52
  Speaker 1: only thanks to the intercession of the Pythagorean friends from Italy,
• 21:56
  Speaker 1: including Architas of Tarentum, who negotiated his release. Freed from
• 22:01
  Speaker 1: Syracuse at last, Plato returned to Athens, shaken and resolved
• 22:04
  Speaker 1: to stay out of Syracuse and politics for good. Subsequently,
• 22:08
  Speaker 1: Dion gathered mercenaries, and in three fifty seven BCE he
• 22:12
  Speaker 1: did overthrow Dionysus a second by force and action Plato
• 22:15
  Speaker 1: did not endorse. Dion ruled Syracuse briefly, but was assassinated
• 22:19
  Speaker 1: in three fifty four BCE, plunging the city into further chaos.
• 22:24
  Speaker 1: These episodes affirmed to Plato how intractable real world politics
• 22:28
  Speaker 1: could be, and how difficult it was to enact philosophical
• 22:31
  Speaker 1: ideals amid greed and power struggles. In his Seventh Letter,
• 22:36
  Speaker 1: if it is indeed by Plato, as many scholars believe,
• 22:39
  Speaker 1: Plato reflects on these events, expressing bitter disappointment at Dionysus
• 22:43
  Speaker 1: the second's character and acknowledging that his hopes of a
• 22:46
  Speaker 1: philosopher king went unrealized. By three to sixty BCE, Plato
• 22:52
  Speaker 1: was back at the Economy, and there he remained, presumably
• 22:55
  Speaker 1: pouring his experience and lessons into his writings. One less
• 22:59
  Speaker 1: than result both of the Sicilian adventures was a deepening
• 23:02
  Speaker 1: of Plato's pessimism about unphilosophical politicians, a theme evident in
• 23:07
  Speaker 1: later dialogues like Statesmens and Laws, where he grapples with
• 23:10
  Speaker 1: the gulf between ideal theories and the practical governance of
• 23:13
  Speaker 1: flawed humans. Plato's fames rest on his dialogues, vivid literary conversations,
• 23:19
  Speaker 1: mostly featuring Socrates as a protagonist, through which Plato examined
• 23:22
  Speaker 1: a vast range of philosophical questions. At least twenty five
• 23:26
  Speaker 1: dialogues and a dozen more of disputed authenticity have come
• 23:29
  Speaker 1: down to us. They are typically divided by scholars into
• 23:32
  Speaker 1: three chronological groups, Early, Middle, and Late dialogues, which reflect
• 23:37
  Speaker 1: shifts in Plato's style and philosophical focus. The exact order
• 23:40
  Speaker 1: of composition is not certain, but a rough progression can
• 23:43
  Speaker 1: be discerned Early dialogues. In these, Plato attempts to capture
• 23:47
  Speaker 1: the spirit of the historical Socrates. They is set during
• 23:50
  Speaker 1: socrates lifetime and focus on ethical questions, often ending without
• 23:53
  Speaker 1: a clear resolution. Socrates here mostly asks probing questions, but
• 23:57
  Speaker 1: proposes few doctrines of his own. Exact samples Apology Socrates
• 24:02
  Speaker 1: Trial Defense, Eutherpo on piety, Creto on justice and obedience
• 24:06
  Speaker 1: to law, Charmedies on temperance, Lachets on courage, Protagorists on
• 24:11
  Speaker 1: whether virtue can be taught, Gorgias a critique of rhetorical persuasion,
• 24:15
  Speaker 1: and a Debate on justice, and Ion on poetic inspiration.
• 24:20
  Speaker 1: In these texts, Socrates is portrayed as a staunch moral intellectualist,
• 24:24
  Speaker 1: believing that virtue is knowledge and that nobody does wrong willingly,
• 24:28
  Speaker 1: but only out of ignorance. The early dialogues lay the
• 24:31
  Speaker 1: groundwork for Plato's later theories by examining moral concepts and
• 24:34
  Speaker 1: exposing the inadequacies of conventional notions of goodness. Then we
• 24:39
  Speaker 1: have the Middle Dialogues. Plato's own philosophical voice emerges more
• 24:42
  Speaker 1: boldly here, even as Socrates remains the lead character. These
• 24:46
  Speaker 1: dialogues introduce Plato's most famous doctrines, notably the theory of forms,
• 24:51
  Speaker 1: and often present positive philosophical theories rather than simply questioning others.
• 24:55
  Speaker 1: The middle period works are also literary masterpieces with dramatic depth.
• 25:00
  Speaker 1: Key examples Meno Fato, Symposium, Republic, and Phagus. In the Meno,
• 25:05
  Speaker 1: Socrates and a young interlocutor explore whether virtue can be taught,
• 25:09
  Speaker 1: leading to the paradox of inquiry and the idea that
• 25:11
  Speaker 1: learning is recollection of knowledge the soul knew before birth,
• 25:15
  Speaker 1: introducing Plato's doctrine of anamnesis the soul's pre existence. The
• 25:19
  Speaker 1: Feto contains Plato's first full argument for the immortality of
• 25:23
  Speaker 1: the soul, asserting that the soul, being akin to the
• 25:26
  Speaker 1: eternal and unchanging forms, lives on after the body's death.
• 25:30
  Speaker 1: In Symposium, a series of speeches by Socrates and others
• 25:33
  Speaker 1: unfold the concept of erros love, culminating in Socrates relaying
• 25:37
  Speaker 1: the teachings of Diatoma, who describes a latter of love,
• 25:40
  Speaker 1: rising from physical attraction to love of beauty, and ultimately
• 25:44
  Speaker 1: love of the eternal form of beauty itself. Symposium thereby
• 25:47
  Speaker 1: develops the notion of platonic love, a love that ascends
• 25:51
  Speaker 1: to the appreciation of pure form. The republic. Plato's best
• 25:55
  Speaker 1: known work is a sprolling dialogue about justice in the
• 25:57
  Speaker 1: individual and the ideal state. It introduces the allegory of
• 26:01
  Speaker 1: a cave wherein most people live chained in a world
• 26:04
  Speaker 1: of shadows illusion unless free to see the light of truth.
• 26:08
  Speaker 1: Central to the Republic is the theory of forms, the idea
• 26:12
  Speaker 1: that for every concept or quality, justice, beauty, equality, etc.
• 26:16
  Speaker 1: There is a perfect, unchanging archetype, a form which is
• 26:20
  Speaker 1: the most real and true instatiation of that quality. The
• 26:24
  Speaker 1: form of good is highest of all, illuminating the nobility
• 26:27
  Speaker 1: of other forms, as the sun in the allegory illuminates
• 26:30
  Speaker 1: the visible world. The Republic also lays out Plato's vision
• 26:33
  Speaker 1: of a just society ruled by philosopher kings those who
• 26:37
  Speaker 1: have ascended to knowledge of the good. In Pedris, Plato
• 26:41
  Speaker 1: combined two topics, love and rhetoric. It features the famous
• 26:44
  Speaker 1: chariot allegory of the soul, depicting the soul as a
• 26:47
  Speaker 1: charioteer with two winged horses, one noble and one unruly,
• 26:51
  Speaker 1: symbolizing the conflict between rational and irrational impulses in the soul.
• 26:55
  Speaker 1: Fagis also critiques writing in rhetoric, suggesting that the true
• 26:59
  Speaker 1: art of persuasion must be based on truth and an
• 27:01
  Speaker 1: understanding of the soul. Across these middle works, Plato's philosophical
• 27:06
  Speaker 1: positions crystallize the soul is immortal and divided into parts reason, spirit, appetite.
• 27:12
  Speaker 1: Knowledge is justified true belief, rooted ultimately in recollection of
• 27:16
  Speaker 1: the forms. Virtue is a kind of harmony of the
• 27:19
  Speaker 1: soul's parts under reason's guidance, and the highest aim is
• 27:22
  Speaker 1: to contemplate the eternal realities forms beyond the shifting world
• 27:26
  Speaker 1: of senses. In the Late Dialogues, these works likely written
• 27:31
  Speaker 1: in Plato's later years round three sixty to three forty
• 27:34
  Speaker 1: seven BCE or are often more challenging and subtle. Socrates
• 27:39
  Speaker 1: either plays a smaller role or is absent entirely, and
• 27:41
  Speaker 1: Plato engages in meticulous philosophical analysis, sometimes even reconsidering or
• 27:46
  Speaker 1: critiquing his earlier ideas in Theotitis, an oldest Socrates in
• 27:51
  Speaker 1: the Young Mathematician Theotitis attempt to define knowledge, examining and
• 27:56
  Speaker 1: rejecting definitions like knowledge is perception and ending inconclusive if
• 28:00
  Speaker 1: the deep puzzling over how we can know anything for certain?
• 28:03
  Speaker 1: The Parmenides dialogue is especially striking. It depicts the philosopher
• 28:07
  Speaker 1: Parmenides regulously criticizing the theory of forms that young Socrates proposes,
• 28:12
  Speaker 1: pointing out puzzles and contradictions, such as the famous third
• 28:16
  Speaker 1: Man argument problem, of infinite regress when considering the form
• 28:19
  Speaker 1: of largeness. Many interpret this as Plato's own critical self
• 28:22
  Speaker 1: examination of the form's doctrine. In Sophist and the Statesman,
• 28:26
  Speaker 1: a character known as Eliotic Stranger, not Socrates, leads the discussion.
• 28:32
  Speaker 1: Sophis tackles the nature of non being and being, developing
• 28:35
  Speaker 1: a sophisticated analysis of how false statements are possible, thereby
• 28:38
  Speaker 1: addressing parmenides challenge that one cannot speak of what is not.
• 28:43
  Speaker 1: It refines Plato's metaphysics by introducing distinctions between kinds and
• 28:47
  Speaker 1: suggests that the forms themselves into relate. The Statesman tries
• 28:51
  Speaker 1: to pin down the definition of a true statesman or
• 28:54
  Speaker 1: king through a tedious but illuminating process of division, and
• 28:57
  Speaker 1: offers myths like the story of cosmic reversals of time.
• 29:00
  Speaker 1: The dialogue implicitly critiques earlier political idealism, acknowledging that the
• 29:05
  Speaker 1: pure philosophical king ideal of the republic might be untainable
• 29:08
  Speaker 1: and that the statesmen must often work with imperfect laws.
• 29:12
  Speaker 1: Philebus discusses what constitutes the highest good for humans, weighing
• 29:16
  Speaker 1: pleasure verse intellect, and concludes that a life mixed of
• 29:20
  Speaker 1: wisdom and measured enjoyment is superior to a life of
• 29:23
  Speaker 1: pure pleasure. Tomaeos is Plato's grand cosmological treaties. In it,
• 29:28
  Speaker 1: a single speaker, to Maaeus, delivers a speculative account of
• 29:31
  Speaker 1: the origin of the universe. Plato posits a divine craftsman,
• 29:35
  Speaker 1: the Demiurge, who imposes mathematical order on chaos using the
• 29:39
  Speaker 1: eternal forms as a model. Tomaios describes the creation of
• 29:43
  Speaker 1: the world's soul, the composition of the four elements from
• 29:45
  Speaker 1: geometric solids, and the origin of human souls and bodies,
• 29:49
  Speaker 1: and ambitious synthesis of metaphysics, science, and theology. It was
• 29:53
  Speaker 1: one of Plato's most influential works in later antiquity in
• 29:55
  Speaker 1: the Middle Ages, particularly because it was one of the
• 29:58
  Speaker 1: few dialogues available in Latin. Critias, intended as a sequel
• 30:01
  Speaker 1: to Timaeus, recounts the tale of Atlantis, a mighty ancient
• 30:05
  Speaker 1: empire that fought and loss against primotal Athens before perishing
• 30:08
  Speaker 1: in a cataclysm. This story is likely a brilliant fiction
• 30:11
  Speaker 1: or allegory created by Plato, perhaps meant to illustrate the
• 30:14
  Speaker 1: hubris of nations. Unfortunately, Critias is an incomplete. It breaks
• 30:18
  Speaker 1: off mid sentence, leaving the Atlantis story tantalizingly unfinished. Plato's
• 30:22
  Speaker 1: final work, Laws, is unique in that Socrates is absent. Instead,
• 30:26
  Speaker 1: an anonymous Athenian stranger guides the discussion. Laws spans twelve
• 30:31
  Speaker 1: books of conversation about designing a city governed by detailed
• 30:34
  Speaker 1: laws and a mixed government. It's more sober and pragmatic
• 30:37
  Speaker 1: than the Republic, often considered a second best Politely, where
• 30:40
  Speaker 1: no philosopher king is assumed. In the Laws, Plato advocates
• 30:44
  Speaker 1: for the rule of law above all, incorporating strict regulations
• 30:47
  Speaker 1: on education, drinking, and even music, and introducing the concept
• 30:51
  Speaker 1: of nocturnal counsel, a sort of philosophical overseers of the laws.
• 30:55
  Speaker 1: By writing dialogues rather than essays, Plato allows multiple perspectives
• 30:59
  Speaker 1: to be heard and encourages the reader to engage actively
• 31:02
  Speaker 1: with the arguments. This indirect style means Plato doesn't speak
• 31:05
  Speaker 1: in his own voice, making it occasionally challenging to discern
• 31:09
  Speaker 1: his definite stance. As one scholar noted, fuel Plato's writings
• 31:13
  Speaker 1: can be seen as mere advocacy or simple doctrines. They
• 31:16
  Speaker 1: often present puzzles and leave matters open for interpretation. For instance,
• 31:21
  Speaker 1: he extols the forms in many dialogues, but also raises
• 31:24
  Speaker 1: difficulties about them and parmenites. He praises the contemplative life,
• 31:28
  Speaker 1: yet in laws he focuses on mundane legal codes. This
• 31:32
  Speaker 1: dynamic quality is why the Platonic corpus has generated diverse
• 31:35
  Speaker 1: interpretations over the centuries. Behold human beings living in an
• 31:41
  Speaker 1: underground den. Education is the art of turning the whole
• 31:44
  Speaker 1: soul towards the light. At the heart of Plato's philosophy
• 31:48
  Speaker 1: is the theory of forms or ideas. Simply put, Plato maintained
• 31:53
  Speaker 1: that beyond the imperfect physical world that we perceive with
• 31:56
  Speaker 1: our senses, there exists a higher reality of eternal, un changing,
• 32:00
  Speaker 1: perfect forms. The things we see in touch, trees, chairs,
• 32:05
  Speaker 1: acts of justice, beautiful objects, or merely imperfect copies or
• 32:09
  Speaker 1: participations of their ideal form form of tree, form of chair,
• 32:15
  Speaker 1: justice itself, beauty itself. The forms are invisible and intelligible
• 32:20
  Speaker 1: grasp by the mind rather than the senses. They are
• 32:23
  Speaker 1: the true realities that give shape and meaning to the
• 32:26
  Speaker 1: observable world. Plato's forms, or his answer to a fundamental
• 32:29
  Speaker 1: philosophical question, how can we have stable, certain knowledge in
• 32:34
  Speaker 1: a world that is always changing. He was influenced here
• 32:37
  Speaker 1: by pre Socratic philosophers. Heraclitus had said all is flux,
• 32:41
  Speaker 1: so how can anything be known or defined? Whereas Parmenides
• 32:46
  Speaker 1: insisted that reality is unitary and changeless. Plato's forms reconcile
• 32:51
  Speaker 1: this by positing the two levels of reality, the changing
• 32:54
  Speaker 1: sensory world where nothing perfectly is it's always becoming something else,
• 32:59
  Speaker 1: and the timeless world of forms, where true being resides.
• 33:03
  Speaker 1: For example, many particular things are called beautiful, but they're
• 33:07
  Speaker 1: all imperfect and transient. Yet we have a notion of
• 33:10
  Speaker 1: beauty itself that is perfect and never changes. That beauty
• 33:14
  Speaker 1: itself is the form of beauty which particular beautiful things
• 33:17
  Speaker 1: partaken in the republic. Plato illustrates this with a divine
• 33:21
  Speaker 1: line analogy in the Allegory of the Cave. Most people
• 33:25
  Speaker 1: live among shadows, mistakingly sensory appearances of reality, like prisoners
• 33:29
  Speaker 1: in a cave, seeing only shadows on a wall. The philosopher,
• 33:33
  Speaker 1: in contrast, breaks free to glimpse the sunlight of truth,
• 33:36
  Speaker 1: the forms, and especially the highest form, the form of
• 33:40
  Speaker 1: the good, which is the source of all reality and knowledge,
• 33:43
  Speaker 1: and knowledge is to the sun illuminating the visible world.
• 33:47
  Speaker 1: The form of good gives being an intelligibility to all
• 33:50
  Speaker 1: other forms, justice, beauty, and so on, yet itself beyond
• 33:54
  Speaker 1: being in dignity. Plato omitted that the good is hard
• 33:58
  Speaker 1: to know, he betrayed as a mystery only apprehended at
• 34:01
  Speaker 1: the climax of philosophical education. Plato's metaphysics thus elevates abstract
• 34:08
  Speaker 1: universals to the most real status, whereas concrete particulars are
• 34:12
  Speaker 1: lower copies. This was a radical idea with enormous influence
• 34:15
  Speaker 1: on later philosophy and theology. It introduced a two tiered
• 34:19
  Speaker 1: viewer reality, an intelligible realm of permanence versus sensible realm
• 34:23
  Speaker 1: of change, which became a hallmark of Platonism. It also
• 34:28
  Speaker 1: had ethical implications. To Plato, only knowledge of the eternal forms,
• 34:33
  Speaker 1: especially the good, can guide the soul to true virtue
• 34:36
  Speaker 1: and fulfillment. The material world in bodily pleasures, being ever,
• 34:40
  Speaker 1: influx and imperfect, can distract us from the pursuit of
• 34:43
  Speaker 1: the eternal truths. Plato's concept of soul psyche is deeply
• 34:48
  Speaker 1: intertwined with his metaphysics. He regarded the soul as a
• 34:51
  Speaker 1: mortal and divine, more akin to the eternal forms than
• 34:54
  Speaker 1: to the perishable body. In dialogues like Feto, Republic and Figius,
• 34:59
  Speaker 1: Plato Orpha's various arguments for the soul's immortality and portrays
• 35:02
  Speaker 1: the soul's journey beyond this life. One argument in Feedo
• 35:06
  Speaker 1: is that life comes from death and death from life
• 35:08
  Speaker 1: in an eternal cycle, implying the soul must exist before
• 35:12
  Speaker 1: birth to be reborn. Another is that the soul grasps
• 35:16
  Speaker 1: the forms like absolute equality, which are eternal, so the
• 35:20
  Speaker 1: soul itself must be of similar nature, invisible, indivisible, and everlasting.
• 35:26
  Speaker 1: Plato psychology divides the human soul into three parts, as
• 35:29
  Speaker 1: described in Republic Book for and refined in Feedus. Reason, spirit, will, emotion,
• 35:35
  Speaker 1: and appetite. Reason seeks truth, and the good Spirit gives
• 35:39
  Speaker 1: us courage and righteous Indignation and appetite desires bodily pleasures
• 35:43
  Speaker 1: and material gain. A virtuous person lives in a harmony
• 35:47
  Speaker 1: whereas reason rules, spirit allies with reason, and appetite is
• 35:51
  Speaker 1: kept in check, and knowledge is to a well ordered city,
• 35:54
  Speaker 1: where philosopher guardians govern, soldiers in force, and common citizens
• 35:58
  Speaker 1: follow This tripartite soul explains human conflicts and moral failures.
• 36:04
  Speaker 1: Wrongdoings happens when the lower parts spirit are appetite overpower reason.
• 36:08
  Speaker 1: Plato also believed that metempsychosis the transmigration of souls. In
• 36:13
  Speaker 1: the Myth of Er Republic, Book ten, he describes souls
• 36:16
  Speaker 1: after death being judged and then choosing new lives to
• 36:19
  Speaker 1: be borne into drinking from the river of forgetfulness before
• 36:23
  Speaker 1: returning to the mortal realm. In Fiedris, he imagines souls
• 36:27
  Speaker 1: as celestial chariots that, if they cannot control their horses,
• 36:30
  Speaker 1: fall from the heavens and are incarnated into human bodies,
• 36:33
  Speaker 1: with philosophic souls having seen more of true reality before
• 36:37
  Speaker 1: falling and thus retaining a dim recollection of it. This
• 36:40
  Speaker 1: notion of recollection suggests that what we call learning is
• 36:43
  Speaker 1: really the soul remembering truths it new in a disembodied state,
• 36:47
  Speaker 1: as demonstrated by Socrates guiding a slave boy to geometrical
• 36:51
  Speaker 1: truths and meno. The ethical upshot is that caring for
• 36:54
  Speaker 1: one soul is of paramount importance, a refrain throughout Plato's work,
• 36:58
  Speaker 1: echoing socrates teaching that virtues in the state of one
• 37:01
  Speaker 1: soul matter more than bodily interests. Plato Socrates says that
• 37:05
  Speaker 1: maintaining the soul's health throughout virtue and wisdom is our
• 37:08
  Speaker 1: true purpose. This emphasis was a direct influence on later
• 37:12
  Speaker 1: religious and philosophical traditions, which likewise prioritize the soul's salvation
• 37:16
  Speaker 1: or enlightenment. There is a madness, which is a gift
• 37:21
  Speaker 1: of the gods and the source of the greatest blessings.
• 37:26
  Speaker 1: Plato's theory of knowledge is often summed up by the
• 37:28
  Speaker 1: formula knowledge is justified true belief. In various dialogues, he
• 37:33
  Speaker 1: explores how he come to know anything with certainty. Knowledge,
• 37:36
  Speaker 1: for Plato, must be of what truly is the forms,
• 37:40
  Speaker 1: as opposed to mere opinion, which deals with shifting phenomena.
• 37:44
  Speaker 1: In the Republic, he draws a distinction. Knowledge is like
• 37:47
  Speaker 1: seeing the clear daylight of reality the forms, whereas opinion
• 37:51
  Speaker 1: is like seeing shadows in twilight. It has some degree
• 37:54
  Speaker 1: of truth, but not reliability. In Meno, he famously asks
• 37:57
  Speaker 1: whether virtue can be taught and introduces the paradox of inquiry.
• 38:01
  Speaker 1: One cannot search for what one doesn't know, since you
• 38:04
  Speaker 1: wouldn't recognize it if found, nor for what one knows,
• 38:07
  Speaker 1: since you already know it. His solution is the theory
• 38:10
  Speaker 1: of anemnesis. The soul, having known the forms before birth,
• 38:14
  Speaker 1: can recollect truths when prompted the right way. The Socratic
• 38:17
  Speaker 1: questioning can elicit latent knowledge. The slave boy in Meno,
• 38:21
  Speaker 1: with no formal training, is let to work out a
• 38:23
  Speaker 1: geometric solution, suggesting the knowledge within him. Implicitly, Plato argues
• 38:27
  Speaker 1: that the soul had learned it in a prior existence.
• 38:31
  Speaker 1: In Theotitis, Plato examines definition of knowledge, knowledge as perception,
• 38:36
  Speaker 1: as true, belief as a true belief with an explanation,
• 38:39
  Speaker 1: and finds problems with each. Notably, he refutes the relativism
• 38:43
  Speaker 1: of the soface protagorist man is the measure of all
• 38:46
  Speaker 1: things by arguing that if all the belief is true
• 38:49
  Speaker 1: for the believer, it destroys the possibility of expertise or learning,
• 38:53
  Speaker 1: since Noman could ever be wrong. The dialogue leaves a puzzle.
• 38:57
  Speaker 1: We never get a tidy answer to what knowledge is,
• 39:00
  Speaker 1: illustrating Plato's willingness to embrace complexity. However, combining insights from
• 39:05
  Speaker 1: different words, one can surmise that Plato's answer lies in
• 39:08
  Speaker 1: his metaphysics, true knowledge is rational insight into the forms,
• 39:12
  Speaker 1: achieved through dialectic, a rigorous method of reasoning and hypothesis testing,
• 39:17
  Speaker 1: culminating in an intuitive grasp of the highest principles, Like
• 39:21
  Speaker 1: the good. He was skeptical of knowledge derived purely from
• 39:25
  Speaker 1: sense experience, since the senses deceive and present mere appearances. Instead,
• 39:30
  Speaker 1: reason and intellectual abstraction lead us to truth. This viewpoint
• 39:34
  Speaker 1: that knowledge is of universals and that the mind has
• 39:37
  Speaker 1: access to a supra empirical realm of truths, for example,
• 39:41
  Speaker 1: mathematical truths or moral universals, is a hallmark of Platonic
• 39:45
  Speaker 1: epistemology and has the lasting influence underpinning later rationalist philosophies.
• 39:53
  Speaker 1: For Plato, ethics is grounded in the state of the
• 39:55
  Speaker 1: soul and its alignment with the good. He, following Socrates,
• 39:59
  Speaker 1: believed virtue is not knowledge. No one knowingly does evil
• 40:02
  Speaker 1: people err out of ignorance of the truly good. However,
• 40:06
  Speaker 1: Plato expands this view in the Republic, Knowing the good
• 40:09
  Speaker 1: is necessary but not sufficient. The appetites and emotions must
• 40:12
  Speaker 1: be trained and in tune with reason. It presents the
• 40:15
  Speaker 1: idea of the cardinal virtues wisdom in the rational part,
• 40:19
  Speaker 1: courage in the spirited part, temperance in the appetitive part,
• 40:22
  Speaker 1: obeying reason and justice the harmonious structure of the soul,
• 40:26
  Speaker 1: where each part does its proper role. An individual is
• 40:29
  Speaker 1: just when the three parts of the soul are in
• 40:31
  Speaker 1: the right order, and by analogy, a society is just
• 40:34
  Speaker 1: when its three classes rulers, guardians, producers each do their
• 40:39
  Speaker 1: appropriate work under wise guidance. This structural concept of justice,
• 40:44
  Speaker 1: each part fulfilling its function, was a revolutionary ethical political theory.
• 40:49
  Speaker 1: Plato's most detailed portrait of an ideal society happens in
• 40:52
  Speaker 1: the Republic. In that utopia, philosopher kings who have true
• 40:56
  Speaker 1: knowledge govern not for personal power, but for the benefit
• 40:59
  Speaker 1: of all. The guardian class, warriors support them, and the
• 41:02
  Speaker 1: majority producing class provides for material needs. He infamously advocates
• 41:07
  Speaker 1: communal family and property for the guardian class to avoid
• 41:10
  Speaker 1: conflicts of interest, and the education of women alongside men
• 41:14
  Speaker 1: for those roles, radical proposals in his time. Although Plato's
• 41:18
  Speaker 1: Calipolis beautiful city is an aristocracy of merit and wisdom,
• 41:22
  Speaker 1: he acknowledges it's an ideal seldom, if ever realized Republic
• 41:26
  Speaker 1: also contains criticisms of degenerate forms of government in a
• 41:29
  Speaker 1: quasi historical cycle. His stance on democracy was ambivalent at best,
• 41:34
  Speaker 1: shaped by the fate of Socrates. He saw unbridled democracy
• 41:38
  Speaker 1: as leading to demagogery and chaos. Indeed, in Republic, he
• 41:41
  Speaker 1: likens a democratic city to a ship whose crew mutinies
• 41:44
  Speaker 1: and refuses to heed the skilled navigator, preferring to drink
• 41:48
  Speaker 1: and stare randomly, a pointed metaphor. Plato's distrust of rhetoric,
• 41:52
  Speaker 1: the art of persuasive speech, as practiced by the sophis
• 41:55
  Speaker 1: and politicians, is an ethical concern too. In Gorgias, these
• 42:00
  Speaker 1: critiques rhetoric as a false art that flatters the masses
• 42:03
  Speaker 1: without imparting real knowledge, cooling in a form of manipulation
• 42:07
  Speaker 1: akin to cookery, pleasing but not truly beneficial. He advocates
• 42:11
  Speaker 1: that the true rhetoric must be used only to convey truth,
• 42:14
  Speaker 1: and should be grounded in dialect and the speaker's knowledge
• 42:17
  Speaker 1: of the subject, a theme returned to Infidris. Plato also
• 42:22
  Speaker 1: had a distinct stance on poetry and art in relation
• 42:24
  Speaker 1: to ethics and truth. In Republic, Book ten, he banishes
• 42:28
  Speaker 1: most poets from the ideal city, arguing that poets merely
• 42:31
  Speaker 1: imitate appearances in panda to the emotions, thus corrupting the
• 42:35
  Speaker 1: soul's rational harmony. He was wary of how Homer and
• 42:38
  Speaker 1: tragic poets beloved in Greek culture portrayed the gods and
• 42:42
  Speaker 1: heroes with vices, fearing this sets a poor moral example. Moreover,
• 42:47
  Speaker 1: from his metaphysical perspective, art is an imitation of an imitation.
• 42:52
  Speaker 1: A painting of a bed is a copy of the
• 42:53
  Speaker 1: physical bed, which itself a copy of the form of
• 42:56
  Speaker 1: the bed. Therefore, art is thrice removed from the truth.
• 43:00
  Speaker 1: This severe view of art's deceptive power was one of
• 43:03
  Speaker 1: Plato's most controversial positions. Yet in the Dialogue Ion, Plato,
• 43:08
  Speaker 1: though Socrates, softens by describing the poet as inspired by
• 43:12
  Speaker 1: the muses, possessed that divine manness, not composing through knowledge,
• 43:15
  Speaker 1: but by inspiration, like a ring of magnets, drawing creativity
• 43:19
  Speaker 1: from a higher source. And in Symposium he intriguingly describes
• 43:24
  Speaker 1: the highest purposes of love as generating true virtue and
• 43:27
  Speaker 1: giving birth and beauty, likening the philosopher to a poet
• 43:30
  Speaker 1: of the soul. So Plato's relationship with poetry was complex.
• 43:34
  Speaker 1: He was a poetic writer himself, whose myths and images
• 43:37
  Speaker 1: stirred the imagination, even as he warns against illusion. His
• 43:41
  Speaker 1: overreaching demand was that art and rhetoric should serve truth
• 43:44
  Speaker 1: and moral improvement, not mere pleasure or persuasion. This principle
• 43:48
  Speaker 1: would resonate through later esthetics and literary criticism, prompting debates
• 43:52
  Speaker 1: on the moral responsibility of art. Plato's academy became known
• 43:57
  Speaker 1: as a hub for mathematical research in addition to philosophy.
• 44:00
  Speaker 1: He saw mathematics as their ideal training for the mind
• 44:03
  Speaker 1: to grasp abstract truths. In The Republic book six through seven,
• 44:07
  Speaker 1: Plato outlines an educational curriculum for future philosopher rulers that
• 44:11
  Speaker 1: gives a central place to mathematical sciences, arithmetic, geometry, plain
• 44:17
  Speaker 1: and solid astronomy, and harmonics music theory. These disciplines turned
• 44:22
  Speaker 1: the mind away from the world of sense and toward
• 44:24
  Speaker 1: the realm of permanent relations and proportions, thereby accustoming thinkers
• 44:29
  Speaker 1: to consider forms. Plato himself contributed to conceptual discussions in mathematics.
• 44:35
  Speaker 1: For example, he explored the notion of incomeasurability, the idea
• 44:38
  Speaker 1: that some lengths cannot be expressed as rational ratios known
• 44:42
  Speaker 1: from Pythagorean discoveries and stress the importance of geometrical knowledge.
• 44:47
  Speaker 1: The five regular polyhedra carry his name as the Platonic
• 44:50
  Speaker 1: solids because in Timaeus he correlates each of the four
• 44:53
  Speaker 1: elements earth, air, fire, water with one of the regular
• 44:57
  Speaker 1: solids cube, octahedron, tetrahedron, ecosahedron, respectively, and the dough decahedron
• 45:03
  Speaker 1: he associated with the shape of the cosmos. This shows
• 45:07
  Speaker 1: how deeply he imbued physical theory with mathematical structure. The
• 45:11
  Speaker 1: Pythagorean influence on Plato was profound. Pythagoreans held that number
• 45:14
  Speaker 1: in harmony underlie the structure of the cosmos. Plato echoed
• 45:18
  Speaker 1: this in seeing mathematical order as evidence of a rational
• 45:20
  Speaker 1: design in the universe. He was sometimes called the maker
• 45:23
  Speaker 1: of mathematicians, as later mathematicians like Euclid and Archimedes were
• 45:28
  Speaker 1: indirect airs of mathematical culture, notably theatry Does, a contemporary mathematician,
• 45:33
  Speaker 1: is credited with early work on irrational numbers and likely
• 45:36
  Speaker 1: the theory of five solids. His ideas probably fed into
• 45:39
  Speaker 1: Plato's writings While Plato did not invent mathematical theorems in
• 45:44
  Speaker 1: the way Euclid did, his conceptual innovation was to insist
• 45:47
  Speaker 1: that mathematical entities, like geometrical shapes and numbers, have a
• 45:52
  Speaker 1: kind of reality that is more stable and noble than
• 45:54
  Speaker 1: the physical world. This can be seen as an extension
• 45:57
  Speaker 1: of his theory of forms, with numbers in gimmetrical concepts
• 46:00
  Speaker 1: themselves being forms are close to them. In the philosophy
• 46:04
  Speaker 1: of mathematics, this view is known as mathematical platonism, the
• 46:09
  Speaker 1: belief that abstract mathematical objects exist independently of human minds. Indeed,
• 46:14
  Speaker 1: even today, many mathematicians casually refer to themselves as platonists
• 46:18
  Speaker 1: if they believe numbers are discovered, not invented. Plato's legacy
• 46:22
  Speaker 1: in mathematics is thus more philosophical. He framed the why
• 46:26
  Speaker 1: of math's importance. It trains the mind for logical thought
• 46:29
  Speaker 1: and uncovers the deep structural reality. This reverence for mathematics
• 46:33
  Speaker 1: influenced scientific thinkers for centuries. For example, Neopythagorean and Neoplatonic
• 46:39
  Speaker 1: scholars and later Renaissance scientists who took it almost as
• 46:42
  Speaker 1: a religious truth that nature is written in the language
• 46:45
  Speaker 1: of mathematics. Time was created together with the heavens, so
• 46:51
  Speaker 1: that coming into beings should be like the model of
• 46:53
  Speaker 1: eternal being. We touched on this above, but to summarize
• 46:58
  Speaker 1: Plato's views on rhetoric and poet he was one of
• 47:01
  Speaker 1: the earliest thinkers to critique these arts from a philosophical
• 47:04
  Speaker 1: ethical standpoint. Rhetoric as taught by Sophis was suspect to
• 47:08
  Speaker 1: Plato because it often aimed at persuasion without regard for truth.
• 47:13
  Speaker 1: In Gogias, Socrates confronts a famous rhetorician in Gogeas and
• 47:17
  Speaker 1: argues that rhetoric is not a true technique art or
• 47:20
  Speaker 1: craft concerned with justice, but a mere knack for flattery
• 47:23
  Speaker 1: and winning over an ignorant crowd. He compares it to cooking.
• 47:28
  Speaker 1: Just as a cook can make unhealthy food taste good,
• 47:31
  Speaker 1: a rhetorician can make bad ideas seem persuasive. True justice,
• 47:36
  Speaker 1: Socrates insists, is more important than the orator's success. He
• 47:40
  Speaker 1: even claims it's better to suffer wrong than to do wrong,
• 47:43
  Speaker 1: a direct rebuke to cynicism of sophistic rhetoric. Plato worries
• 47:48
  Speaker 1: that skilled speakers who lack moral wisdom can manipulate public
• 47:51
  Speaker 1: opinion and gain power, a phenomenon he likely saw in
• 47:55
  Speaker 1: the Athenian Assembly. This dance was undoubtedly shaped by the
• 47:58
  Speaker 1: events of his youth, the execution of Socrates after a trial,
• 48:02
  Speaker 1: where rhetorics swayed the jury against reason and truth. However,
• 48:07
  Speaker 1: Plato does not wholly reject the art of persuasion. In Fiedris,
• 48:11
  Speaker 1: he offers a more nuanced view. Rhetoric can be legitimate
• 48:14
  Speaker 1: if the speaker truly knows the truth and adapts the
• 48:17
  Speaker 1: presentation to the soul of the listener for their benefit.
• 48:21
  Speaker 1: The Fiedris likens a good speech to a living creature
• 48:24
  Speaker 1: with parts organically arranged. Structure matters, as does understanding psychological
• 48:29
  Speaker 1: types of audiences. Plato effectively sketches the foundations of a
• 48:33
  Speaker 1: philosophical rhetoric that is subordinate to dialect and truth. Only
• 48:37
  Speaker 1: someone who has dialectically grasped the topic at hand and
• 48:40
  Speaker 1: has a philosopher's care for the soul of the audience
• 48:43
  Speaker 1: should practice rhetoric. In this sense, Plato paved the way
• 48:47
  Speaker 1: for later discussion on the ethics of persuasion and the
• 48:50
  Speaker 1: difference between sophistry and true philosophy. Regarding poetry, Plato had
• 48:57
  Speaker 1: a love hate relationship. He was a poetic writer himself,
• 49:00
  Speaker 1: whose dialogues employ mythic storytelling, but he was wary of
• 49:04
  Speaker 1: the emotional power of poetic performances in Greek culture. In Republic,
• 49:08
  Speaker 1: he famously argues that most poetry, especially the dramatic poetry
• 49:10
  Speaker 1: of Homer and the Tragedians, should be excluded from the
• 49:13
  Speaker 1: ideal state. His reasons one, epistemological poets deal in imitations
• 49:19
  Speaker 1: of appearances, not reality a truth, thus they have no
• 49:22
  Speaker 1: knowledge of the things they depict. Two, Moral and psychological
• 49:27
  Speaker 1: poetry excites passions and can glorify vice or weakness, for instance,
• 49:31
  Speaker 1: tragic heroes lamenting loudly, which he thought cultivates a soft
• 49:35
  Speaker 1: character in the audience. He wanted education to promote self
• 49:39
  Speaker 1: control and bravery, not the seemingly permissive morals often portrayed
• 49:42
  Speaker 1: by gods and heroes in myth However, Plato allowed that
• 49:46
  Speaker 1: some poetry which praises the gods and promotes virtue could
• 49:49
  Speaker 1: be permitted. He went and throw out to hymns or
• 49:51
  Speaker 1: honorable tales of heroes entirely in laws. He even outlines
• 49:56
  Speaker 1: a state regulated system of musical and poetic censorship to
• 49:59
  Speaker 1: ensure the art art support moral ends. Paradoxically, Plato's critique
• 50:04
  Speaker 1: of poetry had a hugely productive influence. It compelled later
• 50:07
  Speaker 1: philosophers and poets to think hard about representation and the
• 50:10
  Speaker 1: purpose of art. Aristotle's Poetics can be read as a
• 50:14
  Speaker 1: reply defending tragedy as philosophically meaningful, and later esthetic theory
• 50:19
  Speaker 1: often starts by grappling with Plato's assertations about art's deceptiveness
• 50:23
  Speaker 1: versus its potential for truth. Where Socrates compares the rhapsode
• 50:28
  Speaker 1: reciting Homer to a magnetized iron ring, transmitting inspiration from
• 50:32
  Speaker 1: the muse to the poet, to the performer to the audience,
• 50:35
  Speaker 1: the rhapsode speaks better than he knows, guided by divine inspiration,
• 50:39
  Speaker 1: not intellect. Here, Plato is describing poetic madness as one
• 50:43
  Speaker 1: of the divine madnesses, alongside love, prophecy, and mystic frenzy,
• 50:47
  Speaker 1: that can actually lift the soul. So while he doesn't
• 50:51
  Speaker 1: credit poets with knowledge, he does allow that they might
• 50:53
  Speaker 1: be vehicles of a divine logos. In some Plato's own dialogues,
• 50:58
  Speaker 1: blending logic and myth, reason and drama show He was
• 51:01
  Speaker 1: not anti art per se. He simply demanded that art
• 51:05
  Speaker 1: aligned with and be subordinate to philosophical truth. The insistence
• 51:10
  Speaker 1: that ethics and truth should guide artistic expression was foundational
• 51:13
  Speaker 1: in Western thought. In his final years, Plato continued to
• 51:19
  Speaker 1: teach at the Academy and write. Aristotle studied under himuntil
• 51:23
  Speaker 1: Plato's death, and later reports suggest the Academy at this
• 51:26
  Speaker 1: time was an exciting place of debate and metaphysics, science,
• 51:28
  Speaker 1: and philosophy. Plato lived to a ripe old age around
• 51:32
  Speaker 1: eighty Ancient biographical anecdotes of varying reliability describe a peaceful end.
• 51:37
  Speaker 1: Another claims he died serenely in bad way. Thrasian fluke
• 51:40
  Speaker 1: girl played music. By this time, the political landscape of
• 51:44
  Speaker 1: Greece was shifting. Macedon On the Philip, the second father
• 51:47
  Speaker 1: of Alexander the Great, was rising to dominance. Plato, however,
• 51:51
  Speaker 1: had seen only the beginning of that change. He was
• 51:54
  Speaker 1: buried on the grounds of the Academy, according to Diagenes,
• 51:58
  Speaker 1: though no tomb has been discovered. Plato left no children
• 52:01
  Speaker 1: and never married. As far as historical evidence suggests, his
• 52:04
  Speaker 1: legacy was carried on by his nephew Speusippus, who became
• 52:07
  Speaker 1: head of the Academy, and by countless intellectual heirs. Plato's
• 52:12
  Speaker 1: writings were preserved by the Academy and later by manuscript
• 52:15
  Speaker 1: copyists surviving the Hellenistic Age, the Roman Era, and into
• 52:19
  Speaker 1: our own times, a remarkable chain of transmission that owed
• 52:22
  Speaker 1: much to their revered status. Legend holds that Plato may
• 52:26
  Speaker 1: have had an extensive unwritten doctrine he taught only in lectures,
• 52:29
  Speaker 1: the so called unwritten teachings to turning abstract principles like
• 52:33
  Speaker 1: the One and the Indefinite Diad. Of the thirteen Letters
• 52:36
  Speaker 1: traditionally included in Plato's work, most are considered spurious by
• 52:40
  Speaker 1: modern scholars, except the seventh Letter, which many, though not all,
• 52:44
  Speaker 1: believed to be authentic due to its deep reflection on
• 52:46
  Speaker 1: Plato's philosophical career and the Syracuse affairs. In it, Plato
• 52:51
  Speaker 1: even comments on why he never wrote a treatise on
• 52:53
  Speaker 1: the Good itself, famously stating that serious philosophical truth can't
• 52:58
  Speaker 1: be just written down like other subs, but requires a
• 53:01
  Speaker 1: live dialectical encounter and is understood by only those who
• 53:05
  Speaker 1: traveled the path of wisdom themselves. Within Plato's lifetime. His
• 53:10
  Speaker 1: academy produced important philosophers in their own right. Speusippus explored
• 53:14
  Speaker 1: epistemology and ethics, Xenocrates systemized metaphysics and considered the soul's nature,
• 53:19
  Speaker 1: and others branched into field like mathematics and rhetoric. The
• 53:22
  Speaker 1: Platonic tradition was thus already branching out even as rival
• 53:26
  Speaker 1: schools like Aristotles emerged. The attempt to sever everything from
• 53:31
  Speaker 1: everything destroys discourse itself. Plato's influence on world intellectual history
• 53:38
  Speaker 1: is staggering in scope. Alfred North Whitehead, the twentieth century philosopher,
• 53:43
  Speaker 1: once equipped the safest general characterization of the European philosophical
• 53:47
  Speaker 1: tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes
• 53:49
  Speaker 1: to Plato. This famous remark, only slightly hyperbolic, captures how
• 53:54
  Speaker 1: foundational Plato's ideas have been over the century. Nearly every
• 53:58
  Speaker 1: field of thought, philosoph of the theology, science, political theory, education,
• 54:02
  Speaker 1: engaged with Plato's concepts, whether in enthusiastic agreement or critical response.
• 54:07
  Speaker 1: Plato's thought echoed through different eras and regions, especially focusing
• 54:11
  Speaker 1: on the ancient Greek and Hellenistic world. Religious thought particularly
• 54:15
  Speaker 1: in Christianity the medieval period, including the Islamic world, the Renaissance,
• 54:19
  Speaker 1: and even touches beyond the West. Plato's immediate impact was
• 54:23
  Speaker 1: evident in his students and the schools that followed the
• 54:25
  Speaker 1: academy he found. It continued for centuries, though it evolved
• 54:28
  Speaker 1: in character. Initially under Speusippus and Xenocrates, the Academy maintained
• 54:33
  Speaker 1: and developed Plato's doctrines, with some shifts. Spucippus, for instance,
• 54:37
  Speaker 1: downplayed the form of the good. By the third century BCE,
• 54:41
  Speaker 1: the academy had turned to skepticism, which, inspired partly by
• 54:44
  Speaker 1: Socratic ignorance, taught that certain knowledge is unattainable and one
• 54:48
  Speaker 1: must suspend judgment. Even in adopting skepticism, the academic philosophers
• 54:53
  Speaker 1: saw themselves as loyal to Plato's spirit, perhaps emphasizing the
• 54:57
  Speaker 1: apoaetic side of dialogues like Theattas. Later in the first
• 55:01
  Speaker 1: century BCE, Middle Platonism emerged as a revival of Plato's
• 55:04
  Speaker 1: positive doctrines, synthesizing them somewhat with Pythagorean and Aristolian ideas.
• 55:09
  Speaker 1: Middle Platonists like Plutarch of Chronea and Philo of Alexandri
• 55:13
  Speaker 1: interpretated Plato's demiurge as a monotheistic God in the forms
• 55:16
  Speaker 1: as thoughts in the mind of God, paving the way
• 55:19
  Speaker 1: for religious adaptions of Platonism. Simultaneously, Aristotle, Plato's most famous pupil,
• 55:26
  Speaker 1: founded his own school and developed a system of thought
• 55:28
  Speaker 1: often seen as opposed to Plato's, famously asking if their
• 55:32
  Speaker 1: need to be forms of even trivial or negative things
• 55:35
  Speaker 1: and raising the third man problem. He preferred to talk
• 55:39
  Speaker 1: about substance in their properties in the concrete world. Where
• 55:42
  Speaker 1: Plato exalted that transcendent, Aristotle focused on the imminent. Yet,
• 55:46
  Speaker 1: for all their differences, Aristotle's philosophy is also in continuity
• 55:50
  Speaker 1: with Plato's. Aristotle adopted Plato's concern for universals, ethics of virtue,
• 55:55
  Speaker 1: and even borrowed much of Plato's conceptual vocabulary. Raphael's school
• 55:59
  Speaker 1: of Athtoni ss Fresco famuously personifies this. It depicts Plato
• 56:03
  Speaker 1: pointing upward to the realm of forms and Aristotle gesturing
• 56:06
  Speaker 1: outward downward to the empirical world. Their dialogue symbolizes the
• 56:10
  Speaker 1: balance of idealism and piricism in Western thought. Other Hellenistic
• 56:14
  Speaker 1: philosophies that came after Plato also owed him debts. The
• 56:18
  Speaker 1: Stoics third century BCE took inspiration from both Socrates and
• 56:21
  Speaker 1: Plato and ethics. The Stoic idea of the rational soul
• 56:25
  Speaker 1: living according to nature has parallels to Plato's idea of
• 56:28
  Speaker 1: reason ruling the soul. The Stoics, however, rejected transcendent forms,
• 56:33
  Speaker 1: instead developing a materialistic ontology. The Epicureans largely ignored Plato's metaphysics,
• 56:39
  Speaker 1: focusing on atomism from Democritis, but they engaged with his
• 56:42
  Speaker 1: ethics in so far as they strongly opposed the Platonic
• 56:45
  Speaker 1: ideal of the good. Epicurius identified the good with pleasure,
• 56:49
  Speaker 1: a view Plato would have disdained as base. Most significantly,
• 56:53
  Speaker 1: in early centuries of the Roman Empire, Neoplatonism arose as
• 56:57
  Speaker 1: a powerful philosophical movement that explicitly sore itself as the
• 57:00
  Speaker 1: true heir of Plato. Founded by Polatonus, Neoplatonism built a
• 57:04
  Speaker 1: systematic metaphysical cosmology with Plato's idea at its core. Plutonus
• 57:09
  Speaker 1: taught of a single supreme reality, the one or the Good,
• 57:12
  Speaker 1: from which emanated the intellect realm of forms, and then
• 57:15
  Speaker 1: the world's soul, which in turn generates the material world,
• 57:19
  Speaker 1: an elaborate interpretation of Plato's Timeian cosmology and form hierarchy.
• 57:24
  Speaker 1: Platanus sought to reconcile Plato with Aristotle and other thinkers,
• 57:27
  Speaker 1: but Plato was his guiding light. He saw the goal
• 57:30
  Speaker 1: of human life as mystical union with the One, an
• 57:33
  Speaker 1: idea arguably present in Plato's Symposium and Republic, where the
• 57:37
  Speaker 1: highest love or knowledge is a unity with the good.
• 57:41
  Speaker 1: Plutanus's disciple Porphyry and later Proclus further extended Platonic metaphysics,
• 57:46
  Speaker 1: commenting extensively on Plato's dialogues. By the fourth to fifth
• 57:50
  Speaker 1: century CE, Neoplatonism had become the dominant philosophy in Greco
• 57:54
  Speaker 1: Roman world, and even a kind of pagan theology. The
• 57:57
  Speaker 1: last philosophers of Plato's academy in Athens until disclosure in
• 58:01
  Speaker 1: five twenty nine CE, were Neoplatonists. This school preserved Plato's
• 58:05
  Speaker 1: works and transmitted Platonic ideas into the Byzantine, Islamic and
• 58:09
  Speaker 1: Latin intellectual worlds. Because human affairs are never at rest,
• 58:15
  Speaker 1: no fixed rule can apply to everything for all time.
• 58:21
  Speaker 1: Plato's thoughts, especially as mediated by neoplatonism, had a profound
• 58:25
  Speaker 1: impact on the development of religious thought in Judaism, Christianity,
• 58:28
  Speaker 1: and Islam. Many early theologians and philosophers in these traditions
• 58:32
  Speaker 1: were educated in Greek philosophy and found platonic concepts useful
• 58:36
  Speaker 1: for articulating their religious doctrines. In Judaism, the Hellenistic Jewish
• 58:41
  Speaker 1: philosopher Philo of Alexandria first century BCE merged Platonism with
• 58:45
  Speaker 1: Biblical ideas, interpreting the Hebrew Scriptures allegorically through a platonic lens.
• 58:51
  Speaker 1: He identified the forms with the ideas in the mind
• 58:53
  Speaker 1: of the Biblical God Logos, and described the material world
• 58:56
  Speaker 1: as an image of those divine ideas. This set a
• 58:59
  Speaker 1: president for life later Judaeo Christian thought that saw platonic
• 59:02
  Speaker 1: philosophy as not necessarily opposed to monotheistic religion, but as
• 59:07
  Speaker 1: a preparation for it, an idea later echoed in Augustine.
• 59:10
  Speaker 1: For Christianity, Christianity was especially fertile ground for Platonism. Several
• 59:16
  Speaker 1: early Christian thinkers were Platanists before conversion of sore harmony
• 59:20
  Speaker 1: between Plato's philosophy and Christian revelation. Saint Augustine of Hippo,
• 59:25
  Speaker 1: the most influential of the Latin Church, follows, explicitly acknowledged
• 59:29
  Speaker 1: Plato as the thinker who helped him understand the nature
• 59:32
  Speaker 1: of God and the soul. Augustine wrote, the utterance of Plato,
• 59:36
  Speaker 1: the most pure and bright in all philosophy, scattering the
• 59:39
  Speaker 1: clouds of error, has shone with such an enfulgins as
• 59:43
  Speaker 1: to illumine and enrich the most unhappy life of men.
• 59:48
  Speaker 1: He regarded the Platonists as having grasped that truth and
• 59:50
  Speaker 1: happiness that reside in the immaterial realm, and that God,
• 59:54
  Speaker 1: the source of the truth, must be the ultimate reality.
• 59:58
  Speaker 1: Augustine's doctrine of God bears Platonic marks. God is eternal,
• 1:00:03
  Speaker 1: the locus of unchanging truth, the source of all being,
• 1:00:06
  Speaker 1: akin to the Platonic good. Augustine's understanding of the soul
• 1:00:10
  Speaker 1: is superiority to the body, its need for divine illumination
• 1:00:14
  Speaker 1: to know truth, its restless desire for God is deeply
• 1:00:17
  Speaker 1: neo Platonic. For example, Augustine adopted the Platonic view that
• 1:00:21
  Speaker 1: evil is not a substance but a privation of good,
• 1:00:25
  Speaker 1: aligning with the idea that God the Good, did not
• 1:00:28
  Speaker 1: create evil, and that all being is good insofar as
• 1:00:31
  Speaker 1: it exists, a concept to God from Platinus. The doctrine
• 1:00:34
  Speaker 1: of illumination in Augustine's epistemology, that the human mind needs
• 1:00:38
  Speaker 1: God's life to truly know anything, much as our eyes
• 1:00:41
  Speaker 1: need the sun to see, is also a Christianized Platonic idea,
• 1:00:45
  Speaker 1: echoing the allegory of the Sun and the cave. Furthermore,
• 1:00:49
  Speaker 1: Augustine's trinitarian theology was arguably influenced by Platinus's triadic ontology, One,
• 1:00:55
  Speaker 1: Intellect and Soul. He saw hints of the Trinity and
• 1:00:58
  Speaker 1: Plato's writings via the Neoplatonists, and he used Platonic language
• 1:01:02
  Speaker 1: to explain how the three divine persons could be consubstantial.
• 1:01:07
  Speaker 1: In some Augustine created a Christian Platonism that became the
• 1:01:10
  Speaker 1: bedrock of medieval Christian thought until the High Middle Ages.
• 1:01:14
  Speaker 1: Other Church fathers in Christian thinkers that were influenced by Plato,
• 1:01:18
  Speaker 1: like Origin of Alexandria, who was well versed in Platonism
• 1:01:20
  Speaker 1: and incorporated the pre existence of souls and other Platonic notions.
• 1:01:24
  Speaker 1: The Cappadocian fathers like Gregory of Nisa also drew on
• 1:01:28
  Speaker 1: Platonic concepts of the soul's ascent and the immaterial nature
• 1:01:31
  Speaker 1: of God. Pseudodionysus, a mysterious Syrian Christian writer, adopted an
• 1:01:37
  Speaker 1: overtly neoplatonic framework to describe the hierarchy of angels and
• 1:01:40
  Speaker 1: the mystical union with God, his divine names, and mystical theology,
• 1:01:45
  Speaker 1: or essentially Christian neoplatonism, introducing terms like ecstasy and union
• 1:01:50
  Speaker 1: that influenced medieval mystics. In the Byzantine East, figures like Gregory,
• 1:01:55
  Speaker 1: Palamus and others still grappled with Platonic ideas, though Aristotle
• 1:01:59
  Speaker 1: became more prominent in scholastic theology by the late medieval period.
• 1:02:03
  Speaker 1: In the Islamic world, Plato was less directly influential than Aristotle,
• 1:02:07
  Speaker 1: who was labeled the first Teacher, but he was not unknown.
• 1:02:11
  Speaker 1: Some of Plato's works were translated into Arabic. For example,
• 1:02:15
  Speaker 1: an Arabic version of Republic circulated, with some creative editions
• 1:02:19
  Speaker 1: like the Republic of Animals used for a political allegory.
• 1:02:22
  Speaker 1: Islamic philosophers like Alfarabi and Avicina show Platonic influences through
• 1:02:27
  Speaker 1: their incorporation of Neoplatonic elements. Alfarabi wrote the philosophy of
• 1:02:32
  Speaker 1: Plato and the philosophy of Aristotle, and he attempted to
• 1:02:35
  Speaker 1: harmonize Plato and Aristotle. His metaphysics of emanation and his
• 1:02:40
  Speaker 1: notion of the active intellect have roots in Neoplatonism, a
• 1:02:43
  Speaker 1: lineage from Platonus's ideas, which itself is rooted in Plato.
• 1:02:48
  Speaker 1: Another Islamic philosopher, al Kindi explicitly admired Plato. The Brethren
• 1:02:53
  Speaker 1: of Purity, a tenth century mystical philosophical group, referenced Platonic ideas.
• 1:02:58
  Speaker 1: Perhaps the clearest instance is seuwer Wardi in twelfth century,
• 1:03:01
  Speaker 1: who founded the Illumination is school and openly drew on
• 1:03:04
  Speaker 1: Platonic and Zoracrian imagery of light verse darkness and saw
• 1:03:08
  Speaker 1: himself reviving the wisdom of the ancients, which included Plato.
• 1:03:13
  Speaker 1: The Islamic mystical tradition Sufism, sometimes use language that sounds Platonic,
• 1:03:18
  Speaker 1: the souls sent the illusionary nature of the world, though
• 1:03:21
  Speaker 1: one must be cautious assuming influence versus parallel development. Nevertheless,
• 1:03:26
  Speaker 1: through scholars and centers like Baghdad and Cordoba, Platonic thought,
• 1:03:30
  Speaker 1: often filtered via the indeads of Plutonis, which were translated
• 1:03:33
  Speaker 1: into Arabic and mistakenly attributed to Aristotle. As the theology
• 1:03:37
  Speaker 1: of Aristotle permeated medieval Islamic philosophy, the three great Monotheistic
• 1:03:43
  Speaker 1: religions each integrated Platonic ideas to such an extent that
• 1:03:46
  Speaker 1: one historian noted, the three great monotheistic religions of the
• 1:03:50
  Speaker 1: world owe much to Platonic thought, whether directly or through
• 1:03:55
  Speaker 1: the works of his student and friend Aristotle. For Christianity
• 1:04:00
  Speaker 1: in particular, Platonism became part of its DNA during the
• 1:04:03
  Speaker 1: Medieval period. This Platonic Christian synthesis was eventually challenged by
• 1:04:08
  Speaker 1: a resurgence of Aristotle, especially in the thirteenth century with
• 1:04:11
  Speaker 1: Thomas Aquinas, but even Aquinas in Scholastics remained indebted to
• 1:04:15
  Speaker 1: certain Platonic assumption like the immaterial soul, objective universals, et cetera,
• 1:04:22
  Speaker 1: and later Renaissance Christian humanists and neoplatonists like Marsilio Ficino
• 1:04:26
  Speaker 1: explicitly sought to blend Plato with Christian theology anew during
• 1:04:32
  Speaker 1: the early Middle Ages in Western Europe, knowledge of Plato's
• 1:04:35
  Speaker 1: works was fragmentary. Latin Christendom had only partial access to
• 1:04:39
  Speaker 1: Plato's writings for a long time. The only dialogue widely
• 1:04:43
  Speaker 1: available in Latin for centuries was Timeus, thanks to a
• 1:04:46
  Speaker 1: partial translation by Chalcidius in the fourth century. This meant
• 1:04:50
  Speaker 1: that early medieval scholars often knew Plato's secondhand through Augustine
• 1:04:54
  Speaker 1: or both Theis or encyclopediac summaries. Bole Theus wrote of
• 1:04:58
  Speaker 1: Plato's views on universals in use Platonic reasoning and consolation
• 1:05:01
  Speaker 1: of philosophy. The concept of universals was a huge debate
• 1:05:05
  Speaker 1: in medieval scholasticism, essentially a revival of the Plato versus
• 1:05:09
  Speaker 1: Aristotle argument. Realists like William of Champeau took a Platonic
• 1:05:13
  Speaker 1: line that universals are real, existing either in the mind
• 1:05:16
  Speaker 1: of God or independently, whereas nominalists are Conceptualists leaned Aristolian
• 1:05:21
  Speaker 1: in saying only individuals exist and universals are just names
• 1:05:24
  Speaker 1: or mental concepts. This is often called the problem of universals,
• 1:05:28
  Speaker 1: and its persistence shows Plato's ghosts in medieval thought. In
• 1:05:32
  Speaker 1: the Byzantine Empire, where Greek literacy remained high, the full
• 1:05:36
  Speaker 1: corpus of Plato was preserved in study Byzantine scholars like
• 1:05:39
  Speaker 1: Michael Piscellis from eleventh century and Gmistus Plethon from fifteenth
• 1:05:43
  Speaker 1: century were ardent Platonists. Plethon, in fact, so idolized Plato
• 1:05:48
  Speaker 1: that he proposed replacing Christianity with a kind of revived
• 1:05:53
  Speaker 1: pagan Platonic pantheism. In fourteen thirty nine, Plethon traveled to
• 1:05:58
  Speaker 1: Florence for Council of Fererra Florence and attempted to unite
• 1:06:02
  Speaker 1: Eastern and Western churches. There, he lectured on Plato versus Aristotle,
• 1:06:07
  Speaker 1: inspiring the medicis and Italian scholars with the vision of
• 1:06:10
  Speaker 1: Plato's wisdom. This directly catalyzed the Renaissance revival of Plato.
• 1:06:15
  Speaker 1: More On that shortly Meanwhile, by the twelfth century, in
• 1:06:19
  Speaker 1: Western Europe, more Plato was becoming available. Henry Aristipus translated
• 1:06:24
  Speaker 1: Fido and Menno into Latin in the twelfth century. In
• 1:06:28
  Speaker 1: the thirteenth century, William of Morbeck translated the complete works
• 1:06:31
  Speaker 1: of Plato, as well as Greek commentaries into Latin at
• 1:06:35
  Speaker 1: the urging of Aquinas's circle. These translations, however, came right
• 1:06:39
  Speaker 1: when Aristotle's works were flooding and and dominating the universities. Hence,
• 1:06:44
  Speaker 1: medieval scholasticism from the thirteenth to fifteenth century was more Aristolian.
• 1:06:48
  Speaker 1: Saint Thomas Aquinas, for example, built on Aristotle, although he
• 1:06:52
  Speaker 1: still calls Plato the philosopher at times and uses Platonic
• 1:06:56
  Speaker 1: idea verse Augustine to note the curious case of Chalcideus.
• 1:07:01
  Speaker 1: Platonic cosmogony. The time Aeus, with its account of creation
• 1:07:05
  Speaker 1: by a benevolent demiurge and the world soul and so on,
• 1:07:09
  Speaker 1: was hugely influential on medieval cosmology and Christian theology of creation.
• 1:07:13
  Speaker 1: Because time Ais was interpretated allegorically to fit Genesis, it
• 1:07:17
  Speaker 1: gave medieval thinkers a framework to discuss matter, the four elements,
• 1:07:22
  Speaker 1: the harmony of the cosmos, and so on, often more
• 1:07:25
  Speaker 1: so than Aristotle's physics until later. The idea of irrational
• 1:07:29
  Speaker 1: order in nature placed there by a divine creator matched
• 1:07:32
  Speaker 1: well with Christian doctrine, a point of contact between Plato
• 1:07:36
  Speaker 1: and Christianity. In summary, during the Middle Ages, Plato's direct
• 1:07:40
  Speaker 1: influence in the Latin West was somewhat eclipsed by Aristotle,
• 1:07:43
  Speaker 1: but indirectly through Augustine and others. He was always present
• 1:07:48
  Speaker 1: in the Greek East and the Islamic world. Plato via
• 1:07:51
  Speaker 1: Neoplatonism remained a central pillar of philosophical spirituality. The Renaissance
• 1:08:00
  Speaker 1: between fourteenth and sixteenth century witnessed a dramatic Platonic revival,
• 1:08:04
  Speaker 1: often called the Platonic Renaissance. Scholars in Italy, fueled by
• 1:08:09
  Speaker 1: the influx of Greek manuscripts thanks to Byzantine refugees and
• 1:08:12
  Speaker 1: renewed study of Greek, rediscovered Plato as a fresh alternative
• 1:08:16
  Speaker 1: to the dry scholastic areostolianism of the medieval universities. In
• 1:08:22
  Speaker 1: fourteen sixty two, the Florentine ruler Cosmo di Medici founded
• 1:08:25
  Speaker 1: a new Platonic academy in Florence, entrusting Marsilio Ficino to
• 1:08:30
  Speaker 1: lead it. Ficcino learned Greek and translated Plato's complete works
• 1:08:35
  Speaker 1: into Latin, published in fourteen eighty four, the first complete
• 1:08:38
  Speaker 1: rendering available in the West. He also translated Plotonis and
• 1:08:42
  Speaker 1: wrote his own Platonic theology. Facino in his circle, which
• 1:08:46
  Speaker 1: included Pico della Mirandola, and influenced artists like Bordicelli and
• 1:08:50
  Speaker 1: Michelangelo sought to harmonize Christianity with Platonism, much like Augustine had,
• 1:08:56
  Speaker 1: but with more magical mystical flavor. Ficcino believe Plato was
• 1:09:00
  Speaker 1: part of a divine philosophia parentis eternal philosophy revealed by
• 1:09:04
  Speaker 1: God to ancient sages. Under his influence, Platonic love became
• 1:09:08
  Speaker 1: a fashionable concept in literature, an idealized, non carnal love
• 1:09:12
  Speaker 1: that leads one to the divine derived from the Symposium.
• 1:09:16
  Speaker 1: Renaissance art was also touched by Platonic ideas of ideal beauty.
• 1:09:21
  Speaker 1: For example, Bordicelli's Primavera in Bertha Venus can be interpretated
• 1:09:25
  Speaker 1: through Ficino's lens as depicting the Platonic idea of heavenly beauty.
• 1:09:31
  Speaker 1: In England, the influence of Renaissance Platonism gave rise to
• 1:09:34
  Speaker 1: the Cambridge Platonists. In the seventeenth century. A group of
• 1:09:37
  Speaker 1: theologian philosophers like Ralph Cudworth, Henry Moore john Smith at
• 1:09:42
  Speaker 1: Cambridge University drew on Plato and Plutonis to advocate a rational,
• 1:09:46
  Speaker 1: spiritual Christianity against both the dogmatic Calvinism and mechanical materialism
• 1:09:51
  Speaker 1: of their day. They emphasized reason and the existence of
• 1:09:55
  Speaker 1: innate ideas, echoing platonic forms of timeless truth and written
• 1:10:00
  Speaker 1: in the soul clear platonic echoes even earlier in Elizabeth
• 1:10:05
  Speaker 1: In England, Platonism influenced literature. Sir Philip Sidney's defense of
• 1:10:09
  Speaker 1: poesy references the idea that a poet gives us a
• 1:10:12
  Speaker 1: golden word better than brazen nature, reminiscent of Plato's ideal
• 1:10:16
  Speaker 1: forms surpassing ordinary reality, though Sidney actually defends poetry against
• 1:10:21
  Speaker 1: Plato's charges an interesting twist, the poet Edmund Spencer was
• 1:10:25
  Speaker 1: inspired by Platonic concepts of beauty and love. In the
• 1:10:29
  Speaker 1: seventeenth century, poets like John Milton infused their Christian humanism
• 1:10:33
  Speaker 1: with Platonic imagery. Milton's even Paradise Loss is sometimes seen
• 1:10:37
  Speaker 1: through the prism of Renaissance neoplatonism and her relationship of
• 1:10:40
  Speaker 1: physical to spiritual beauty. Beyond England, Platonism in Europe influenced
• 1:10:45
  Speaker 1: scientists and mathematicians, who saw a deep connection between mathematics, nature,
• 1:10:50
  Speaker 1: and divinity. Inheriting Plato's faith in an intelligible cosmic order,
• 1:10:55
  Speaker 1: Johannes Kepler, for example, was enamored with the Platonic solids
• 1:10:58
  Speaker 1: and initially thought they determined this spacing of planetary orbits.
• 1:11:03
  Speaker 1: Galileo and Descartes will also arguably influenced by Platonic ideas.
• 1:11:07
  Speaker 1: Galileo by conviction that Nature's book is written in mathematical language,
• 1:11:11
  Speaker 1: a very platonic attitude, and Discards by innate ideas doctrine
• 1:11:15
  Speaker 1: and pursuit of certainty beyond sense. Though Discards was also
• 1:11:19
  Speaker 1: critical of pure forms, his method had a platonic rationalist spirit.
• 1:11:23
  Speaker 1: The Platonic tradition continued to fluorish in philosophies sporadically. In
• 1:11:27
  Speaker 1: the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. The German philosopher Selling and
• 1:11:30
  Speaker 1: others in German idealism revisited Platonic ideals. In the twentieth century,
• 1:11:35
  Speaker 1: mathematician philosophers like Alfred North Whitehead and Kurt Godell openly
• 1:11:40
  Speaker 1: identified as Platonists in believing in objective, abstract realities. Whitehat's
• 1:11:44
  Speaker 1: witticism about philosophy being footnotes to Plato underscores how Plato's
• 1:11:49
  Speaker 1: questions and ideas remained central even modern analytic philosophy grapples
• 1:11:54
  Speaker 1: with Plato and debates on universals, realism, verse nominalism, the
• 1:11:57
  Speaker 1: nature of justice, and so on. Why political philosophy frequently
• 1:12:01
  Speaker 1: returns to republic and laws for foundational ideas about utopias, censorship, education,
• 1:12:06
  Speaker 1: and the role of philosophers in society. One intriguing question
• 1:12:10
  Speaker 1: is the possible influence of Platonism beyond the Western world,
• 1:12:13
  Speaker 1: for instance, in India. Historically, there is no clear evidence
• 1:12:17
  Speaker 1: of Plato's direct influence on classical Indian philosophy. Plato lived
• 1:12:21
  Speaker 1: and died before any significant contact between Greek and Indian thought. However,
• 1:12:25
  Speaker 1: after Alexander the greats Incursions, which occurred a few decades
• 1:12:29
  Speaker 1: after Plato's death, there were exchanges between Hellenistic and Indian cultures,
• 1:12:33
  Speaker 1: like in the Greco Bactrian Kingdom, and through travelers like Pyro,
• 1:12:37
  Speaker 1: the founder of skepticism, who accompanied Alexander to India and
• 1:12:41
  Speaker 1: was influenced by Indian gymnosophists. These contacts largely post date Plato,
• 1:12:47
  Speaker 1: so any convergence of ideas is likely coincidental or indirect.
• 1:12:51
  Speaker 1: That said, modern scholars have sometimes pointed out parallels between
• 1:12:54
  Speaker 1: Platonic and Indian philosophies. For example, the Katha Upanashad's analogy
• 1:12:59
  Speaker 1: of the soul as a master of a chariot with
• 1:13:01
  Speaker 1: senses as horses is reminiscent of Plato's FIGIs chariot allegory.
• 1:13:06
  Speaker 1: Both Plato and Indian traditions like Vedanta talk about a
• 1:13:09
  Speaker 1: higher reality beyond appearances and the importance of turning inward
• 1:13:12
  Speaker 1: to find truth. Some have even compared Plato's cave with
• 1:13:16
  Speaker 1: maya illusion in Indian thought, or the ascent to the
• 1:13:19
  Speaker 1: good with the enlightenment of Moksha. These are intriguing analogies,
• 1:13:24
  Speaker 1: but likely independent developments from confronting similar existential questions. By
• 1:13:29
  Speaker 1: the time of British India nineteenth to twentieth centuries, Plato
• 1:13:32
  Speaker 1: certainly became known to Indian intellectuals via Western education. Influential
• 1:13:38
  Speaker 1: figures such as Sri Oro Bindo or Servo polyrod Hakrasnod
• 1:13:41
  Speaker 1: engaged with Greek philosophy, including Plato, sometimes finding residents with
• 1:13:45
  Speaker 1: their own Vedantic ideas of absolute reality in the soul's immortality.
• 1:13:49
  Speaker 1: So while one cannot say Plato influenced ancient India, in
• 1:13:53
  Speaker 1: the modern era, his ideas have been part of the
• 1:13:55
  Speaker 1: global philosophical discourse that India also participated in. Interestingly, one
• 1:14:01
  Speaker 1: might consider the neoplatonic influence that traveled with Islam to India.
• 1:14:05
  Speaker 1: For instance, Darashiko, seventeenth century prince, translated the Opanishads and
• 1:14:10
  Speaker 1: was interested in finding common ground between Sufism, which had
• 1:14:14
  Speaker 1: neoplatonic flavors, with Hindu Vedanta. While Plato wasn't directly in
• 1:14:19
  Speaker 1: that picture, the general Platonic worldview of a hierarchy of
• 1:14:22
  Speaker 1: reality and the soul's assent was a shared undercurrent. In
• 1:14:27
  Speaker 1: terms of inventions or tangible influences, Plato did not invent
• 1:14:31
  Speaker 1: a physical device or machine, but he arguably invented or
• 1:14:35
  Speaker 1: at least significantly advanced several things in the realm of ideas.
• 1:14:39
  Speaker 1: The notion of philosophy as a comprehensive subject, one can
• 1:14:42
  Speaker 1: say he invented the discipline of philosophy as we know it,
• 1:14:45
  Speaker 1: with systematic and creer into ethics, epistemology, metaphysics, and so on.
• 1:14:49
  Speaker 1: Armed with a distinctive critical method. Then we have the
• 1:14:53
  Speaker 1: literary genre of philosophical dialogue. While others, like his contemporaries,
• 1:14:57
  Speaker 1: wrote socratic dialogues too, Plato's missed it set the model
• 1:15:01
  Speaker 1: for using dialogue as a means of philosophical argument and teaching.
• 1:15:05
  Speaker 1: We have the Academy, often held as the first and
• 1:15:08
  Speaker 1: enduring institution of higher learning, a prototype of the university.
• 1:15:12
  Speaker 1: This was an institutional invention, creating a place where thinkers
• 1:15:15
  Speaker 1: could pursue knowledge collaboratively over generations. In mathematics has mentioned,
• 1:15:20
  Speaker 1: while not an inventor of specific theorems, he inspired the
• 1:15:23
  Speaker 1: study of abstract geometry and the idea of mathematical proof
• 1:15:26
  Speaker 1: oriented thinking. The Platonic solids were known earlier, but Plato
• 1:15:30
  Speaker 1: popularized them and gave them cosmic significance to the extent
• 1:15:33
  Speaker 1: that they bear his name in mathematics and geometry. Conceptually,
• 1:15:37
  Speaker 1: one could say Plato invented the idea of a utopia.
• 1:15:40
  Speaker 1: In Western literature, Republic is the earliest detailed utopian proposal
• 1:15:44
  Speaker 1: for an ideal state. This inspired later utopian works such
• 1:15:48
  Speaker 1: as Thomas Moore's Utopia in the sixteenth century, and some
• 1:15:51
  Speaker 1: attribute to Plato the invention of the Atlantis myth, a
• 1:15:54
  Speaker 1: full fledged fictional society used allegorically. This story went on
• 1:15:59
  Speaker 1: to have its own huge cultural footprint, from Renaissance speculation
• 1:16:02
  Speaker 1: to modern fiction and pseudo archaeology. Plato's influence is so
• 1:16:07
  Speaker 1: vast that it permeates the very language and framework of
• 1:16:10
  Speaker 1: Western thought. Terms like platonic ideal, platonic love, and platonic
• 1:16:15
  Speaker 1: solid are common parlance. Philosophically, Platonism became one of the
• 1:16:20
  Speaker 1: perennial perspectives emphasizing reality, spiritual or abstract dimension in every error.
• 1:16:26
  Speaker 1: Platonists have advocated for eternal truths and the priority of ideals.
• 1:16:29
  Speaker 1: Why opponents, aristolians, materialists, empirists have sharpened their own positions
• 1:16:35
  Speaker 1: by refuting Plato's claims. Thus, even adversaries keep Plato's questions
• 1:16:40
  Speaker 1: in play. In religion, Platonic philosophy provided concepts to articulate
• 1:16:45
  Speaker 1: doctrines of God, creation, and the soul, with Augustine's Christian
• 1:16:48
  Speaker 1: Platonism being a prime example. In science and math, a
• 1:16:53
  Speaker 1: platonic faith that the universe is intelligible and that our
• 1:16:56
  Speaker 1: ideas correspond to cosmic order underlies the scientific mindset. Einstein
• 1:17:01
  Speaker 1: once remarked that the only incomprehensible thing about the universe
• 1:17:04
  Speaker 1: is that it is comprehensible, a very platonic sentiment. In
• 1:17:09
  Speaker 1: modern philosophy, debates about the existence of universals, the nature
• 1:17:13
  Speaker 1: of numbers, or the objectivity of moral values often recapitulate
• 1:17:17
  Speaker 1: a platonic verse anti platonic dynamic. For example, analytic philosophers
• 1:17:21
  Speaker 1: discuss platonic realism. In mathematics, doom numbers exist independently, and
• 1:17:26
  Speaker 1: in metaphysics do properties like redness exist apart from red things.
• 1:17:30
  Speaker 1: Many moral philosophers still entertain a form of moral realism
• 1:17:34
  Speaker 1: that can be traced to Plato's idea that justice or
• 1:17:36
  Speaker 1: goodness have real being beyond social convention. From antiquity to present,
• 1:17:42
  Speaker 1: few have been celebrated as Plato for intellectual daring and breath.
• 1:17:46
  Speaker 1: In Raphael's School of Athens, Plato is depicted at the
• 1:17:49
  Speaker 1: center pointing upward to the heavens of forms, symbolizing philosophy's
• 1:17:53
  Speaker 1: aspiration to transcend the mundane. This image aptly captures his
• 1:17:58
  Speaker 1: legacy across ages. Those who sought a reality behind appearances,
• 1:18:02
  Speaker 1: a unity behind diversity, or a hope behind the temporal
• 1:18:05
  Speaker 1: have often turned to Plato for inspiration. As the Great
• 1:18:08
  Speaker 1: Thinker's biography puts it, our very conception of philosophy, who's
• 1:18:12
  Speaker 1: a great depth to his work. No area of increase
• 1:18:15
  Speaker 1: seems foreign to him. In conclusion, Plato's life story from
• 1:18:21
  Speaker 1: aristocratic youth in war torn Athens to devoted follower of Socrates,
• 1:18:25
  Speaker 1: to travelers seeking wisdom and foreign lands, to founder of
• 1:18:29
  Speaker 1: the Academy to philosopher entwined with Sicilian tyrants. Itself is
• 1:18:33
  Speaker 1: a rich narrative of a seeker of truth and a
• 1:18:35
  Speaker 1: turbulent world. His writings not only give us a window
• 1:18:39
  Speaker 1: into that classical world with its agora, discussions, sophists, and courts,
• 1:18:43
  Speaker 1: but also speak to timeless human concerns. What is justice,
• 1:18:47
  Speaker 1: what is the good life? What can we know? What
• 1:18:50
  Speaker 1: should we teach our children? Is the sole immortal and
• 1:18:53
  Speaker 1: what is the ultimate reality? Plato's bold answers forms the
• 1:18:58
  Speaker 1: good recollection, philosopher, Kings and the immortal Soul continued to
• 1:19:02
  Speaker 1: provoke and inspire over two thy three hundred years after
• 1:19:06
  Speaker 1: his death. Engaging with Plato was still a rite of
• 1:19:09
  Speaker 1: passage for any serious student of philosophy. Indeed, one might
• 1:19:13
  Speaker 1: say that as long as humans continue to ask big questions,
• 1:19:16
  Speaker 1: Plato's voice will resound, challenging us to ascend from the
• 1:19:19
  Speaker 1: cave of ignorance into the light of knowledge and reason.
• 1:19:22
  Speaker 1: Across the next two millennia, Plato's voice echoed far beyond Attica.
• 1:19:26
  Speaker 1: The Hellenistic successors preserved his texts. Plutonus forged them into
• 1:19:30
  Speaker 1: towering metaphysics of Neoplatonism. Augustine baptized them for Latin Christendom.
• 1:19:35
  Speaker 1: Arabic translators smuggled them into Islamic philosophy, and Renaissance humanists,
• 1:19:39
  Speaker 1: newly flushed with Greek manuscripts, rekindled their power in art, science,
• 1:19:43
  Speaker 1: and political theory. Wherever minds have sought a reality deeper
• 1:19:47
  Speaker 1: than appearance, whether in Christian contemplation, Sufi illumination, or the
• 1:19:52
  Speaker 1: mathematical harmonies of Kepler's Heavens, Plato has stood close by,
• 1:19:55
  Speaker 1: pointing upward. Yet his influence has not been that of
• 1:19:59
  Speaker 1: a an oracle, handing down settled answers. In dialogue after dialogue,
• 1:20:04
  Speaker 1: he refuses to close the question, leaving his readers in
• 1:20:07
  Speaker 1: productive bewilderment. The Republic's sketches an ideal state, only for
• 1:20:11
  Speaker 1: the laws to concede the messier compromises of actual politics.
• 1:20:15
  Speaker 1: The luminous theory of forms is paraded in one work
• 1:20:17
  Speaker 1: and dissected in the next by dramatizing philosophy as an
• 1:20:20
  Speaker 1: unfinished conversational enterprise. Plato bequeathed to posterity, not a creed,
• 1:20:25
  Speaker 1: but a method, a disciplined wonder that demands reason for
• 1:20:29
  Speaker 1: every claim, even its own. That bequest remains urgent. When
• 1:20:34
  Speaker 1: modern mathematicians debate whether numbers exist independently of minds, they
• 1:20:38
  Speaker 1: rehearse in argument Plato began. When citizens worry that rhetoric
• 1:20:42
  Speaker 1: is eclipsing truth, they repeat anxiety Socrates voice in the Agora.
• 1:20:46
  Speaker 1: And when any of us suspect that divisible world is
• 1:20:49
  Speaker 1: but a dim reflection of deeper patterns, we glimpse the
• 1:20:52
  Speaker 1: cave wall and the distant sun of the good. Plato's
• 1:20:55
  Speaker 1: Athens is long vanished, but the questions he raised about knowledge, justice,
• 1:20:59
  Speaker 1: love in reality still structure the landscape of human thought.
• 1:21:03
  Speaker 1: To read him is to feel that architecture, at once
• 1:21:07
  Speaker 1: austere and exhilarating, take shape in one's mind, and to
• 1:21:10
  Speaker 1: answer him, even in dissent, is to join the very
• 1:21:13
  Speaker 1: conversation that makes philosophy possible. Hope you all enjoyed, and
• 1:21:19
  Speaker 1: until the next one