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35 - History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, Vol II by John Bagnell Bury · History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, Vol II

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Speaker 1: Chapter seventeen, Parts eight and nine of A History of
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Speaker 1: Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great, Volume two.
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Speaker 1: This is the LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in
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Speaker 1: the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please
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Speaker 1: visit LibriVox dot org. A History of Greece to the
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Speaker 1: Death of Alexander the Great, Volume two by John bagnell Bury,
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Speaker 1: Chapter seventeen, Parts eight and nine, Section eight Conquest of Egypt.
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Speaker 1: Egypt was now absolutely cut off from Persia. The gate
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Speaker 1: to that sequestered land was open, and Alexander had only
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Speaker 1: to march in. The Egyptians had not the vigor to
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Speaker 1: offer any national resistance to the Greek invader, and Mazakes
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Speaker 1: the Persian satrap, seeing Phoenicia and Syria and Alexander's power
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Speaker 1: the Macedonian navy in the roadstead of Pelusium and no
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Speaker 1: hum help at hand, thought only of making his submission
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Speaker 1: and winning the conqueror's grace, sending his fleet up the
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Speaker 1: Pelusaic branch of the Nile to meet him at Memphis.
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Speaker 1: Alexander journeyed thither by way of Heliopolis, in the capital
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Speaker 1: of the Pharaohs, where he was probably proclaimed king, he
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Speaker 1: sacrificed to Appis and the other native gods, and thereby
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Speaker 1: won the good will of the people, who contrasted his
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Speaker 1: piety with the bigotry of the Persian monarch Ochus, who
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Speaker 1: had killed the sacred Bull. But while the new king
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Speaker 1: showed that he would treat the native religion and customs
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Speaker 1: with respect, he also made it clear that Greek civilization
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Speaker 1: was now to pour into the exclusive regions of the Nile.
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Speaker 1: He held athletic games and a poetical contest at Memphis,
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Speaker 1: and the most famous artists from Greece came to take
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Speaker 1: part in it. From Memphis, he sailed down the river
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Speaker 1: to Canopus and took a step which, if he had
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Speaker 1: never performed any other exploit in his life, would have
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Speaker 1: made his name memorable forever. He chose the ground east
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Speaker 1: of Rhyochus, between Lake Mariotis and the sea, as the
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Speaker 1: site of a new city over against the island of Pharos,
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Speaker 1: famous in Homeric song, and soon become more famous still
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Speaker 1: as the place of the first Lighthouse, one of the
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Speaker 1: seven Wonders of the World. The king is said to
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Speaker 1: have himself traced out the ground planned of Alexandria, the
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Speaker 1: market place and the circuit of the walls, the sanctuary
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Speaker 1: of Isis, and the temples of the Hellenic gods. He
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Speaker 1: joined the main land with the island by a causeway
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Speaker 1: of seven statis, nearly a mile in length, and thus
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Speaker 1: formed two harbors. The subsequent history of Alexandria, which has
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Speaker 1: held its position as a port for more than two
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Speaker 1: thousand years, proves that its founder had a true eye
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Speaker 1: in choosing the place of the most famous of his
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Speaker 1: new cities. The greatness of the place as a mart
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Speaker 1: of the world far surpassed any purposes or hopes that
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Speaker 1: Alexander could have formed, but his object in founding it
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Speaker 1: could hardly be doubted. Alexandria was not intended to supersede
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Speaker 1: Memphis as the capital of Egypt. It was intended to
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Speaker 1: take the place of Tire as the commercial center of
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Speaker 1: Western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. And there was a
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Speaker 1: good reason for diverting the lines of traffic from the
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Speaker 1: Phoenician to the Egyptian coast, for it was naturally the
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Speaker 1: policy of Alexander to transfer the trade of the world
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Speaker 1: so far as might be into the hands of Greeks.
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Speaker 1: But any new emporium rising on the ruins of Tire
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Speaker 1: or Sidon, would have soon become predominantly Phoenician, owing to
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Speaker 1: the Phoenician genius for trade, whereas on the Egyptian coast
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Speaker 1: Greek traders would encounter no such rivalry. It was thus,
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Speaker 1: with a view to the commercial interests of his own race,
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Speaker 1: that Alexander founded the port of Egypt. In the official
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Speaker 1: style of the Egyptian monarchy, the pharaohs were the sons
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Speaker 1: of Aman, and as the successor of the pharaohs, Alexander
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Speaker 1: assumed the same title. It was therefore necessary, in order
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Speaker 1: to regulate his position, that an official assurance should be
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Speaker 1: given by Ahman himself that Alexander was his son. To
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Speaker 1: obtain such a declaration and satisfy fully the formalities required
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Speaker 1: by the priests, Alexander undertook a journey to the oracular
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Speaker 1: sanctuary of Aman in the oasis of Siwah. And this
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Speaker 1: motive is alone sufficient to explain the expedition. But it
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Speaker 1: may well be that in Alexander's mind there was a
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Speaker 1: vague notion that there was something divine about his own origin,
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Speaker 1: something mystical in his mother's conception, and that like Achilles,
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Speaker 1: he was somewhat more than an ordinary man. Proceeding along
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Speaker 1: the coast to Paritonian, he was there met by envoys
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Speaker 1: who conveyed the submission of Sireni. By this acquisition, the
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Speaker 1: western frontier of the Macedonian Empire extended to the border
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Speaker 1: of the Carthaginian's fear of influence. Alexander then struck across
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Speaker 1: the desert to visit that Egyptian temple which was most
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Speaker 1: fainmus in the Greek world, the temple, as it was
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Speaker 1: always called, of Zeus Ahman. There were no tracks to
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Speaker 1: guide the travelers, for the south wind had plowed up
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Speaker 1: the sand and obliterated the road marks, and stories were
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Speaker 1: told in the camp of miraculous guidance, vouchsafed to the
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Speaker 1: favorite of the god, Ptolemy, son of Lagus, who was
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Speaker 1: destined hereafter to rule over Egypt and Libya. Recorded in
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Speaker 1: his memoirs, the two snakes moved in front of the
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Speaker 1: troops and showed the way, while Aristobulus, another companion of
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Speaker 1: the king, spoke of the guidance of two crows. A
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Speaker 1: certain mystery enveloped this expedition. It is said that Alexander
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Speaker 1: told no man what he asked the god, or what
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Speaker 1: the God replied, save only that the answer pleased him.
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Speaker 1: But it is certain that the priest had made some dispositions,
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Speaker 1: that Aman spoke and recognized him as his son. The
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Speaker 1: very route by which Alexander returned to Memphis is uncertain,
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Speaker 1: For the same two companions differ, Ptolemy stating that he
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Speaker 1: fared direct across the desert, and Aristobulus that he returned
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Speaker 1: by Paritonian. At Memphis, he organized the government of Egypt,
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Speaker 1: intrusting it to two native nomarchs and appointing separate Greek
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Speaker 1: governors for the adjoining districts of Arabia and for Libya,
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Speaker 1: but the control of the finances was placed in the
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Speaker 1: hands of a special minister, Cleomenes of Melcratus. Several military
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Speaker 1: commanders were also appointed, and it would seem that Alexander
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Speaker 1: instituted this divided command as a safeguard against the danger
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Speaker 1: of a rebellion, For, geographically situated as Egypt was, an
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Speaker 1: ambitious commander might have a fair prospect of holding the
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Speaker 1: country against his lord, and its recent history as a
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Speaker 1: Persian province had illustrated the difficulty of dealing with it.
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Speaker 1: If this be so, Alexander inaugurated a policy which was
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Speaker 1: followed in later days and in another form by his
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Speaker 1: Roman successors. Section nine Battle of Gaugamela and the Conquest
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Speaker 1: of Babylonia. The new lord of Egypt in Syria returned
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Speaker 1: with the spring to tire. The whole coast land was
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Speaker 1: now in his possession, and he controlled the sea. The
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Speaker 1: time had come to advance into the heart of the
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Speaker 1: Persian Empire. Having spent some months in the Phoenician city
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Speaker 1: busied with various matters of policy and administration, as well
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Speaker 1: as with the plans for his next campaign, he set
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Speaker 1: forth at the head of forty thousand infantry and seven
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Speaker 1: thousand horse, and reached Thapsicus on the Euphrates at the
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Speaker 1: beginning of August. The building of two bridges had already begun,
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Speaker 1: but the Persian Mezius, who was stationed with troops on
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Speaker 1: the further shore, had hindered their completion. When Alexander arrived,
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Speaker 1: he withdrew, the bridges were finished, and the army passed over.
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Speaker 1: The objective of Alexander was Babylon. At that time of year,
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Speaker 1: it would have been mad to follow the direct route
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Speaker 1: down the Euphrates, which was traversed by Cyrus and the
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Speaker 1: ten thousand, Alexander chose the other road, across the north
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Speaker 1: of Mesopotamia and down the Tigris on its eastern bank.
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Speaker 1: Throughout the Asiatic campaigns of Alexander, we are struck by
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Speaker 1: the perfect organization of his transports and supplies. But we
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Speaker 1: are struck even more by the certainty of his movements
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Speaker 1: through strange lands, as if he had a map of
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Speaker 1: the country before him. His intelligence department must have been excellent,
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Speaker 1: And though our records give us no intimations on the subject,
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Speaker 1: it has been supposed with much plausibility that here the
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Speaker 1: invader received help from the Jews, who ever, since the captivity,
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Speaker 1: were scattered across Media and Babylonia. It is certain that
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Speaker 1: Alexander had shown special favor to the race of Israel.
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Speaker 1: At the foundation of Egyptian Alexandria, he had invited a
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Speaker 1: Jewish colony to settle there, enjoying the rights of citizens,
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Speaker 1: and yet living in a separate quarter and keeping their
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Speaker 1: own national customs. From some Persian scouts who were captured,
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Speaker 1: it was a certain that Drias, with a yet larger
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Speaker 1: multitude than them, which had succumbed at Issus was on
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Speaker 1: the other side of the river. Determined to contest the passage,
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Speaker 1: Alexander crossed the Tigris, not at Nineveh, the usual place
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Speaker 1: of crossing, but higher up at Bizabde. On the same night,
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Speaker 1: the moon went into eclipse, and men anxiously sought in
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Speaker 1: the phenomena a portent of the issue of the coming
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Speaker 1: struggle for the lordship of Asia. Marching southward for some days,
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Speaker 1: Alexander learned that Duras was encamped in a plain near
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Speaker 1: Gagamela on the river Bumodis. The numbers of the army
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Speaker 1: were reported at one million foot and forty thousand horse.
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Speaker 1: Having given his men four days rest, Alexander moved on
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Speaker 1: by night and halted on a hill, looking down on
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Speaker 1: the plain where the enemy lay prepared for battle. A
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Speaker 1: council of war was held and the question was discussed
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Speaker 1: whether the attack should be made immediately, but Parmenio counseled
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Speaker 1: a day's delay for the purpose of reconnoitering fully the
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Speaker 1: enemy's position and discovering whether perchance covered pits had been
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Speaker 1: dug or stakes laid in the ground. Parmenio's council was
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Speaker 1: followed and the troops pitched their camp in the order
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Speaker 1: in which they were to fight. Alexander rode over the
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Speaker 1: plain and found that the Persians had cleared it of
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Speaker 1: all bushes and obstacles which might impede the movements of
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Speaker 1: their cavalry or the effect of their seethed chariots. The
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Speaker 1: following night was spent by the Persians under arms, for
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Speaker 1: their camp was unfortified and they feared a night attack,
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Speaker 1: and a night attack was recommended by Parmenio, but Alexander
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Speaker 1: preferred to trust the issue to his own generalship in
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Speaker 1: the superior discipline of his troops, and not to brave
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Speaker 1: the hazards of a struggle in the dark. He said
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Speaker 1: to Parmenio, I do not steal victory, And under the
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Speaker 1: gallantry of this reply he concealed in his usual manner
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Speaker 1: the prudence and policy of his resolve. A victory over
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Speaker 1: the Persian host one in the open field in the
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Speaker 1: light of day, would have a far greater effect in
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Speaker 1: establishing his prestige in Asia than an advantage stolen by night.
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Speaker 1: The great King, according to his wont was in the
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Speaker 1: center of the Persian array, surrounded by his kinfolk and
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Speaker 1: his Persian bodyguard. On either side of them were Greek mercenaries,
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Speaker 1: Indian auxiliaries with a few elephants, and Karians whose ancestors
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Speaker 1: had been settled in Upper Asia. The center was strengthened
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Speaker 1: and deepened by a second line composed of the Babylonian
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Speaker 1: troops and the men from the shores of the Persian Gulf,
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Speaker 1: and the Uxians who dwelt east of Susa and the Sitacennes.
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Speaker 1: On the left wing, the Kaowdusians from the shore of
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Speaker 1: the Caspian and the men of Susa were nearest the center.
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Speaker 1: Next came a mixed host of Persian horse and foot,
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Speaker 1: and at the extreme left were the troops from the
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Speaker 1: far east from Aracosia and Bactria. This wing was covered
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Speaker 1: by one thousand Bactrian cavalry, one hundred scythe armed chariots,
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Speaker 1: and the Scythian cavalry from the desert districts of Lake arl.
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Speaker 1: On the right were the contingents of the Caucasian folks,
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Speaker 1: the Hyrcanians and Tapurians from the southeastern shores of the Caspian.
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Speaker 1: The Parthians, who were destined in the future to found
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Speaker 1: a new Oriental monarchy. The Sakai from the slopes of
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Speaker 1: the Hindu Kush and the Meads and the dwellers in
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Speaker 1: Mesopotamia and northern Syria. Against this host, of which the
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Speaker 1: cavalry alone is said to have been as numerous as
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Speaker 1: all the infantry of the enemy. Alexander descended the hill
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Speaker 1: in the morning. On his left wing, commanded as usual
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Speaker 1: by Parmenio, were the cavalry of the Thessalian and Confederate Greeks,
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Speaker 1: in the center the six regiments of the Phalanx, and
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Speaker 1: on the right the Hypastus and the eight squadrons of
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Speaker 1: the Companions, the Royal Squadron of Clitus being at the
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Speaker 1: extreme right. Covering the right wing were some light troops,
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Speaker 1: spear throwers and archers. The line was far outflanked on
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Speaker 1: both sides by the enemy, and the danger which Alexand
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Speaker 1: had most to fear as at the Battle of Issus,
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Speaker 1: was being attacked in rear or flank. Here both wings
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Speaker 1: were in peril. He sought to meet these contingencies by
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Speaker 1: forming behind each wing a second line, which, by facing
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Speaker 1: round a quarter or half circle, could meet an attack
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Speaker 1: on flank or rear. Behind the left wing replaced Thracian
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Speaker 1: horse and foot, some Greek confederate cavalry and Greek mercenary
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Speaker 1: cavalry behind the right, the old Greek mercenaries under Cleander,
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Speaker 1: the Macedonian archers and some of the Agrianian spear throwers,
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Speaker 1: the mounted pikemen in the light Pionian cavalry, and at
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Speaker 1: the extreme right to bear the brunt of a flank
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Speaker 1: assault the new Greek mercenaries under Menitas. As he advanced,
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Speaker 1: Alexander and his right wing were opposite to the center
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Speaker 1: of the enemy's line, and he was outflanked by the
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Speaker 1: whole length of the enemy's left. He therefore bore obliquely
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Speaker 1: to the right, and even when the Scythian horsemen riding
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Speaker 1: forward came into contact with his own light troops, he
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Speaker 1: continued to move his squadrons of heavy cavalry in the
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Speaker 1: same direction. Durias saw with anxiety that this movement would
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Speaker 1: soon bring the Macedonian right outside the ground which he
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Speaker 1: had carefully leveled and prepared for the actions of his
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Speaker 1: scythe chariots, and as he had no small part of
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Speaker 1: his hopes in the deadly effect of these chariots, he
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Speaker 1: commanded the Scythian and Bactrian cavalry to ride round and
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Speaker 1: deliver a flank charge in order to hinder any further
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Speaker 1: advance towards the right. The charge was met by the
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Speaker 1: new mercenaries of Menitas, but they were too few. They
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Speaker 1: were driven back until the Pionians and the old mercenaries
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Speaker 1: were bidden to come to their support. Then the Barbarians
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Speaker 1: gave way, but only in a short while. Reinforced by
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Speaker 1: more troops, they returned to the charge. The battle raged,
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Speaker 1: and it was well if the Macedonians, far outnumbered, could
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Speaker 1: hold their ground. Meanwhile, Durrias had loosed his scythed cars
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Speaker 1: to whirl destruction into the ranks of the companions and
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Speaker 1: the Hypasthus, but the archers and the Augrian spear throwers
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Speaker 1: received them with showers of spears and arrows. Some of
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Speaker 1: these active hillmen seized the reins of the horses and
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Speaker 1: pulled the drivers from their seats, while the hypasthus, swift
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Speaker 1: and undismayed, opened their ranks and the terrible chariots rattled
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Speaker 1: harmless down the intervals. The whole Persian line was now
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Speaker 1: advancing to attack, and Alexander was waiting for the moment
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Speaker 1: to deliver his cavalry charge. He had to send his
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Speaker 1: mounted pikemen to the help of the light cavalry, who
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Speaker 1: were being hard pressed on the right by the Scythians
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Speaker 1: and Bactrians, And as a counter check to this reinforcement,
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Speaker 1: squadrons of Persian cavalry were dispatched to the assistance of
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Speaker 1: their fellows. By the withdrawal of these squadrons, a gap
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Speaker 1: was caused in the left wing, and into this gap
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Speaker 1: Alexander plunged at the head of his cavalry column and
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Speaker 1: split the line in two. Thus the left side of
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Speaker 1: the enemy's center was exposed, and turning obliquely, Alexander charged
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Speaker 1: into its ranks. Meanwhile, the bristling phalanx was moving forward
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Speaker 1: and was soon engaged in close combat with another part
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Speaker 1: of the Persian center. The storm of battle burst with
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Speaker 1: wildest fury round the spot where the Persian king was trembling,
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Speaker 1: and what befell at Issus befell again at Gaugamela. The
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Speaker 1: great king turned his chariot and fled. His persians fled
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Speaker 1: with him and swept along in their flight the troops
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Speaker 1: who had been posted in the rear. Thus, the Persian
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Speaker 1: center and the neighboring part of the left wing were
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Speaker 1: cut down or routed by the Phalanx, the Hypastus and
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Speaker 1: the companions, and in the meantime the severe struggle of
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Speaker 1: the light cavalry on the uttermost left had also ended
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Speaker 1: in victory for the Macedonians. The regiments of the Phalanx
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Speaker 1: and their rapid advanced had failed to keep abreast, and
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Speaker 1: it would seem that when the regiment of Crateras on
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Speaker 1: the extreme left was already far forward in the thick
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Speaker 1: of the fight, the regiment commanded by Simeus, second from
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Speaker 1: the left, was considerably in the rear. From his position,
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Speaker 1: Simeus saw that the Thessalian cavalry on the left wing
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Speaker 1: were pressed hard by their adversaries, and he halted his
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Speaker 1: regiment in order apparently to make a movement to assist them.
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Speaker 1: But the Indian and Persian cavalry of the hostile center
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Speaker 1: rushed through the gap in the phalanx and rode straight
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Speaker 1: onward to the Macedonian camp, unhindered by the rear line
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Speaker 1: of the left wing, who did not expect an enemy
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Speaker 1: on that side. The captives in the camp burst out
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Speaker 1: and helped their friends to murder the Thracians who had
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Speaker 1: been sent to guard it. The Greek mercenaries. Anthracians of
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Speaker 1: the rear line soon perceived what had happened. They turned
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Speaker 1: round and attacked the plunderers in the rear and overcame them. Meanwhile,
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Speaker 1: Parmenio was hard bestead. The Mesopotamians and the Syrians on
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Speaker 1: the extreme Persian right had attacked his cavalry in the
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Speaker 1: flank or rear. Parmenio sped a messenger to Alexander, entreating aid,
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Speaker 1: and Alexander desisted from the pursuit of his fleeing rival
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Speaker 1: to restore the battle on his left wing. Riding back
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Speaker 1: with his companions, he encountered a large body of cavalry, Persians, Parthians,
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Speaker 1: and Indians in full retreat, but in orderly array. A
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Speaker 1: desperate conflict ensued, perhaps the most fearful in the whole battle,
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Speaker 1: the Persians fighting not for victory but for life. Sixty
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Speaker 1: of the companions fell, but Alexander was again victorious and
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Speaker 1: rode on to the help of Parmenio. But Parmenio no
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Speaker 1: longer needed his help. Not the least achievement of this
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Speaker 1: day of great deeds was the brilliant fighting of the
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Speaker 1: Thessalian cavalry, who not only sustained the battle against the
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Speaker 1: odds which had rung from Parmenio the cry for aid,
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Speaker 1: but in the end routed their foemen before Alexander could
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Speaker 1: reach the spot. The battle was won and the fate
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Speaker 1: of the Persian Empire was decided. Alexander did not tarry
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Speaker 1: on the field. He had lost not a moment in
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Speaker 1: resuming the chase which he had abandoned, and riding eastward
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Speaker 1: throughout the night knight on the tracks of the Persian king.
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Speaker 1: He reached Arbella on the morrow it befell now as
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Speaker 1: it had befallen after Issus. He did not take the king,
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Speaker 1: but found at Arbela his chariot, his shield, and his bow.
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Speaker 1: Durius fled into the highlands of Media and Ario Baizans,
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Speaker 1: with a host of the routed army, hastened southward to Persia.
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Speaker 1: Alexander did not follow either king or Satrap, but pursued
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Speaker 1: his way to Babylon. It might have been expected, and
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Speaker 1: Alexander seems to have expected, that the men of Babylon,
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Speaker 1: intrusting in their mighty walls, would have offered to the
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Speaker 1: victor of Gaugamela, the same defiance which the men of
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Speaker 1: Tire offered to the victor of Issus. He was disappointed
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Speaker 1: when he approached the city with his army arrayed for action.
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Speaker 1: The gates opened and the Babylonians streamed out, led by
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Speaker 1: their priests and their chief men. The satrap Mesius, who
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Speaker 1: had fought bravely in the recent battle, surrendered the city
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Speaker 1: and citadel. In Babylonia, Alexander followed the same policy which
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Speaker 1: he had already followed into Egypt. He appeared as the
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Speaker 1: protector of the national religions, which had been depressed and
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Speaker 1: slighted by the fire worshippers. He rebuilt the Babylonian temples
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Speaker 1: which had been destroyed, and above all he commanded the
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Speaker 1: restoration of the marvelous Temple of Bell, standing on its
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Speaker 1: eight towers, on which the rage of Xerxes had vented itself.
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Speaker 1: When he had returned from the route of Salamus, the
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Speaker 1: Persian Mezius, who was retained in his post as Satrap
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Speaker 1: of Babylonia. End of Chapter seventeen, Sections eight and nine