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The Anatomy of Mountain Ranges · PlanetGeo: The Geology Podcast

0:02
SPEAKER_02: Welcome to Planet Geo, the podcast where we talk about our amazing planet, how it works, and why it matters to you.
0:14
SPEAKER_02: The long lost Mr.
0:17
SPEAKER_02: Balhuis.
0:18
SPEAKER_02: Yes.
0:18
SPEAKER_02: What's up, what's up, man?
0:20
SPEAKER_02: Hey.
0:22
SPEAKER_02: You know what?
0:23
SPEAKER_02: I'm glad to see not much has changed.
0:25
SPEAKER_02: Looking pretty good over there.
0:27
SPEAKER_02: My beard's a little longer.
0:28
SPEAKER_02: It is a little longer.
0:29
SPEAKER_02: You got to keep that goatee out of the microphone for me so you're not scrapping.
0:33
SPEAKER_02: Can you hear that?
0:34
SPEAKER_01: If I do that, is that happening?
0:35
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, it's don't do that.
0:36
SPEAKER_01: Don't don't do that.
0:37
SPEAKER_02: Come on.
0:37
SPEAKER_02: Keep it, keep it professional.
0:39
SPEAKER_02: Chris, today let's intro today's episode here.
0:42
SPEAKER_02: The origin, this is I don't know what we're gonna call this thing, but like we're gonna take a tour as you drive, like you and I have done many, many, many, many, many, many times.
0:53
SPEAKER_02: I've always kind of lived in the plains and the prairies, you have too, and we've always driven to the mountains, whether it's east or west.
1:00
SPEAKER_02: And so we're gonna describe what you're seeing geologically as you drive from flat to the mountains.
1:06
SPEAKER_02: And a lot of people do this, I think.
1:08
SPEAKER_02: And so I think this is gonna be a fun episode.
1:10
SPEAKER_02: It's some really basic intro geology that you teach that I've taught many places, and we're gonna cover a bunch of geological settings that all kind of describe the exact same thing.
1:20
SPEAKER_02: But what's the origin?
1:20
SPEAKER_02: You you I'm picturing, I've got a picture of you and Jenny, you know, in your jalopy driving down to the Appalachians or something like that, and Jenny turning to you going, Chris, Chris, what's this rock that we're looking at, or something like that?
1:33
SPEAKER_02: Is that the origin of this?
1:35
SPEAKER_01: It's pretty close.
1:36
SPEAKER_01: That's really close.
1:37
SPEAKER_01: She actually turned to me and she's like, Chris, why am I seeing what I'm seeing?
1:41
SPEAKER_01: And and I'm like, what do you mean?
1:43
SPEAKER_01: What do you what are you asking?
1:45
SPEAKER_01: She's like, Why?
1:46
SPEAKER_01: You know, we we go through this progression, we go through the same thing when we're so she's like that.
1:51
SPEAKER_01: Feels like that's pretty intuitive, actually, that is for her to say that.
1:54
SPEAKER_02: I'm proud.
1:55
SPEAKER_02: I'm proud of Jenny.
1:56
SPEAKER_02: She's tuned in finally after 55 years of marriage due.
1:59
SPEAKER_02: She's tuned in to geology.
2:02
SPEAKER_01: Right on.
2:03
SPEAKER_01: So that's the origin of the episode is um which like hold on.
2:08
SPEAKER_02: That that might be your greatest educational achievement is getting Jenny to have like a geologically tuned eye, don't you think?
2:16
SPEAKER_02: I don't know.
2:17
SPEAKER_02: That's a bit of a stretch.
2:19
SPEAKER_01: Um, yeah, that was uh that was the origin of it.
2:22
SPEAKER_01: She wanted to wait for it.
2:25
SPEAKER_02: Where were you specifically where what were you seeing when she asked the question?
2:28
SPEAKER_01: Uh we were on our way to Tennessee.
2:30
SPEAKER_01: We were on our way to the smokies to catch a from Michigan.
2:34
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, from Michigan.
2:35
SPEAKER_01: We wanted to catch a week in the just hiking, just just going crazy in the smokies for uh a week right after Christmas.
2:42
SPEAKER_01: Yeah.
2:43
SPEAKER_02: So the description, what we're going to talk about is doing basically what you you drove, flat prairie land, which usually it's not always the case, but usually under your feet are pretty flat-lying sediments.
2:56
SPEAKER_02: So underneath of your feet in Michigan, they're not completely flat.
2:59
SPEAKER_02: You live in the Michigan basins.
3:00
SPEAKER_02: We've talked about that before, various episodes.
3:03
SPEAKER_02: They're not completely flat, but for the all intents and purposes, the sediments are pretty flat lying, not a lot of topographic change either.
3:10
SPEAKER_01: There's yeah, there's not.
3:11
SPEAKER_01: And there's they're not flat lying.
3:13
SPEAKER_01: I mean, well, the sediments on top are we've got this glacial kitty litter, and that just kind of you don't get to see the the basement rocks or the bedrock of Michigan very often.
3:23
SPEAKER_02: And Chris, I distinctly remember, I think, I because my my dad, I went on this summer science trip that that you taught me in.
3:32
SPEAKER_02: I went on it when my dad taught it for a couple years when I was really young.
3:35
SPEAKER_02: So I have some stories that I think are conflated in my head of like what happened when, but I'm pretty sure you were le you would give this lecture in the bus.
3:43
SPEAKER_02: Um, you go, you got the C B or the um the whatever you got.
3:46
SPEAKER_02: What's it that's not the C B radio?
3:48
SPEAKER_02: You got the radio.
3:49
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, you got radio pulls the little microphone, yeah.
3:51
SPEAKER_02: Up up front, and you're you're doing Chris Bull eyes here.
3:54
SPEAKER_02: Uh now what you see on your left side is flat line, and I remember you describing flat lying sediments as we're driving man into the Tetons, maybe?
4:05
SPEAKER_02: Would that have been it?
4:06
SPEAKER_02: As we're driving or from 10 sleep or something like that.
4:08
SPEAKER_02: I can't remember.
4:09
SPEAKER_02: What is the progression?
4:09
SPEAKER_02: Where do you give this little lecture in this spiel where you go from flatlying sediments to kind of like slowly folding to all of a sudden folded big sediments?
4:17
SPEAKER_01: Oh, that's yeah, yeah.
4:18
SPEAKER_01: That was heading into uh Rocky Mountain National Park, heading towards Estes Park, really.
4:24
SPEAKER_01: That's when I was doing that.
4:25
SPEAKER_02: Right, okay, okay, yeah, perfect.
4:26
SPEAKER_02: All right, and I've um after that in grad school, I TA'd a third-year field camp, uh junior year field camp, the kind of capstone field course.
4:35
SPEAKER_02: And we would drive from Edmonton, Alberta, we'd drive south to Calgary and all across flat line sediments in the western Canadian uh sedimentary basin, and then we'd head west, head into the Rockies in Calgary.
4:46
SPEAKER_02: We would do the exact same sequence, basically the exact same thing.
4:49
SPEAKER_02: Um, this series of progression that we're going to talk about.
4:52
SPEAKER_02: And also where I live in Pennsylvania, I kind of live in the middle of one of the old parts of this, where this is an old mountain belt in the Appalachians, and I kind of live in the middle of the progression.
5:00
SPEAKER_02: But in general, we go from flat-lying sediments to gently folded sediments to really messed up sediments, and then eventually, as you're driving into the mountain belt, once you're pretty far into the mountain belt, then you get into like the what we call the core of the mountain belt, the really metamorphosed, high temperature, the rocks you and I love, the ones with garnet and tortured salemonide and tortured cool rocks, that granites, those are all pretty far inboard typically.
5:27
SPEAKER_02: And so we're gonna walk through that progression from a couple different things.
5:30
SPEAKER_02: So, summer science trip.
5:32
SPEAKER_02: Do you do the same thing that you did with me?
5:36
SPEAKER_02: Is that kind of lecture sequence the same?
5:38
SPEAKER_02: And if if it is or if it isn't, kind of walk us through that maybe.
5:42
SPEAKER_01: It is kind of.
5:43
SPEAKER_01: I'll say um we don't go that way anymore.
5:46
SPEAKER_01: We go up into glacier now, so I don't go into where I talk about.
5:51
SPEAKER_02: When's the first time you see uh big mountains?
5:54
SPEAKER_01: Uh bighorn's yeah, bighorn mountains.
5:56
SPEAKER_01: Yep, and that's a perfect place to do this same kind of progression because you come out of the black hills and you have these badlands that uh you know on the other side.
6:05
SPEAKER_01: You got the badlands on the east side, you got the badlands on the west side.
6:08
SPEAKER_02: Let me just touch on the black hills.
6:09
SPEAKER_02: We did a whole episode on the black hills many years ago now, I think.
6:13
SPEAKER_02: But they're a bullseye, they're they're an anomaly, they're a bullseye ring of sedimentary rocks that is kind of they're kind of an anomaly, the black hills.
6:19
SPEAKER_02: So you drive into them and out of them, and it's the same on either side.
6:23
SPEAKER_02: You're not like moving into a mountain range when you cross into and out of the black hills.
6:28
SPEAKER_02: Um, that wasn't what I was saying.
6:31
SPEAKER_02: So yeah, yeah, no, I just wanted to frame that for the listener.
6:33
SPEAKER_02: And you're saying you head west from the Black Hills now, and you're into the Badlands, again, flat line kind of sedimentary rocks, and and when do you start to see the topographic change?
6:45
SPEAKER_01: You start to see it, uh, it's hard to say exactly.
6:48
SPEAKER_01: Uh you know, you go through this progression, I guess maybe Gillette, Wyoming, um, just these really broad, flat sedimentary rocks.
6:56
SPEAKER_01: And then as you get closer to Buffalo, Wyoming, you get to see these kind of this fold and thrust belt that that you alluded to earlier.
7:06
SPEAKER_01: It's this you know, classical progression.
7:08
SPEAKER_01: And then as you get you start to climb a little bit then and you get into these more tortured sedimentary rocks, I I guess, and then you get into this crystalline core that's just uh it's a it's a mess of really intensely metamorphosed rocks, some gneisses and some migmatites, and it's just this like I don't know, it's textbook to me.
7:31
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, it's a progression.
7:32
SPEAKER_02: Textbook progression, should we back up in the geological story and kind of tell the story of how a mountain belt like that gets built in order to explain why do we see what we see on the ground?
7:44
SPEAKER_02: Is that is that kind of the best way to explain like a a Forland basin, a fold and thrust belt, a crystalline core complex?
7:50
SPEAKER_02: Like is it do we need to tell the geological story a little bit, right?
7:53
SPEAKER_01: Absolutely, but I think we need to back out a little even a little further and just you know, you have this this cratonic setting of just flat sedimentary rocks there, and let's start there.
8:03
SPEAKER_01: You know, I mean, these are mostly sedimentary, it's sandstones, it's shales, and you get some limestones.
8:10
SPEAKER_01: These were areas that were laid down in in shallow seas.
8:14
SPEAKER_01: Some of them were alluvial, so river deposits, this kind of intertidal area, often sometimes even desert sandstones, depending on the local geology.
8:23
SPEAKER_01: There was really nothing dramatic happened to these rocks, even as a result of the mountains that we're driving to.
8:30
SPEAKER_01: So these are the kind of innocuous, just flat sedimentary rocks that we kind of leave, Jesse, when we leave, you know, at least me from Michigan, that's when I'm driving through massive parts of Ohio.
8:43
SPEAKER_01: If I'm heading to, you know, the Smokies or something like that.
8:47
SPEAKER_02: That's entirely sad to leave that necessarily when you're when you're you're excited to see the big, the big Rockies, right?
8:54
SPEAKER_02: But absolutely, you know, we have to think of what's happening as a mountain range is being actually built, right?
9:00
SPEAKER_02: And there's a really um well calibrated or well calculated and well-modeled process that basically says if you put a big weight somewhere, and you describe this, Chris, really nicely as like a rumpled carpet, but if you put a weight somewhere, and I I like the um I like the analogy of in the swimming pool.
9:20
SPEAKER_02: If you're sitting on a floating, Chris is out there sunbathing, he's laying on one of those swimmy floaty mats where you're kind of just a little bit in the water, you got a drink holder in one hand, and you're kind of you know, half floating, half sinking.
9:32
SPEAKER_02: You're on one of those, and if you put a big weight, like if Jenny sits by your feet, it doesn't matter.
9:37
SPEAKER_01: You just call Jenny a big weight.
9:40
SPEAKER_02: Well, you know, relatively speaking, uh the um if you if you you you put a weight there, that you know it it that edge sags down, right?
9:49
SPEAKER_02: So the whole thing kind of sags down, which this the tectonic plate does the same thing.
9:54
SPEAKER_02: So if you put a big mountain range somewhere nearby, the plate is gonna flex down, and when it flexes down, it's gonna create space for sediment to go in.
10:04
SPEAKER_02: And that's really convenient because the mountain range is poking above sea level and really high and therefore eroding really quickly.
10:10
SPEAKER_02: So all that sediment gets dumped in, and that's what's called a foreland basin.
10:14
SPEAKER_02: But that's just a simple like moving up and down.
10:17
SPEAKER_02: That's uh the an old school view, it's just moving up and down, it's not not accounting for any kind of compression, and but this is a process that happens over time.
10:25
SPEAKER_02: So you're building mountains, not just pushing them up, you're kind of pushing them sideways and squishing together, which then dumps off a bunch of sediment, and you keep squishing, and you keep squishing, and you keep squishing.
10:36
SPEAKER_02: So that sediment is is being laid down over long periods of time.
10:39
SPEAKER_02: Uh sometimes it's really quickly, and it gets squished together and kind of rumpled up.
10:44
SPEAKER_02: And so as that mountain range is being built, the interior part of the mountain belt at what is really high at one point in time, that gets eroded, which lifts up all the really melty, gooey, cool rocks, in my opinion, in your opinion, cool rocks.
11:02
SPEAKER_02: Those get lifted up.
11:03
SPEAKER_02: Why do they get lifted up again?
11:04
SPEAKER_02: We've covered this before, but like you're great at explaining this type of stuff.
11:08
SPEAKER_01: Well, it's just it's isostasy.
11:10
SPEAKER_01: You know, it's a really important mechanism.
11:13
SPEAKER_01: Um, like I keep coming back to this again and again and again in my geoscience class, you know, just making sense of how Michigan, the the whole basin kind of sank back to the north because that's where the ice that came out of Canada was the thickest and the heaviest.
11:29
SPEAKER_01: And it forever trained it forever changed the drainage of of the Great Lakes basin out to the St.
11:35
SPEAKER_01: Lawrence River in the North Atlantic versus going out to the Mississippi, you know, and so it it's the same principle, right?
11:41
SPEAKER_01: Mountains weigh a lot.
11:42
SPEAKER_01: And so when you shed this stuff off these high, tall, rugged, young, muscular peaks, that weight is removed.
11:51
SPEAKER_01: And so the rocks are kind of shoved up violently, almost like reaching the height that they were before the sediment, and and stuff was shed off.
12:01
SPEAKER_01: And it just keeps doing this again and again and again until you you expose these really deep-seated rocks at the surface.
12:08
SPEAKER_01: I mean, we're talking about really tortured metamorphic rocks, you know, gneisses and schists and and eclogites and all you know, the all these different really deeply seated rocks that are now exposed at the surface, and that's how they get it.
12:23
SPEAKER_02: That's a really that's a really important phenomenon to talk about.
12:26
SPEAKER_02: So so the we build this huge, thick mountain belt, right?
12:29
SPEAKER_02: And you're saying it gets eroded, you have the analogy of the of the ship being offloaded, the container ship being offloaded, the center part gets up.
12:36
SPEAKER_02: It doesn't necessarily all happen just like that.
12:39
SPEAKER_02: There are bits that get that once you start to kind of unload, that's a bit of a positive feedback loop.
12:45
SPEAKER_02: So the unloading or unroofing starts to kind of positively feed back, and it makes it m more likely to unroof more in that particular area.
12:54
SPEAKER_02: And so basically we kind of get a like a dome pushing up where all the sides of it kind of slough off to the edges.
13:01
SPEAKER_02: So it's kind of like uh, you know, a fist punching through some putty or some clay or something, and it kind of breaks stuff and it's it kind of comes apart.
13:09
SPEAKER_02: And what we call these things, these domes, are metamorphic core complexes.
13:13
SPEAKER_02: And the metamorphic core complexes, we've we in um in the field school that I taught when I was a grad student in in Canada, we would see this once we got into British Columbia.
13:23
SPEAKER_02: So we would drive across the Rockies start in Alberta in kind of Calgary area, and that's the front range stuff.
13:30
SPEAKER_02: We'd we'd have to drive really far inboard to get to the core metamorphic complex.
13:34
SPEAKER_02: The really the the the deep muscular, the routes to the muscular part of the mountain belt were really far inboard, even though they're not the most spectacular mountains.
13:43
SPEAKER_02: They're definitely not the most spectacular part of the mountain range, these core complexes, because there's like kind of normal faults sloughing off the sides as this metamorphic stuff punches up through, basically.
13:55
SPEAKER_02: And that's really common.
13:56
SPEAKER_02: Those are exposed all through Idaho, the Bear Tooth has some, all through the the the Canadian or the uh the American Rockies, even in the Appalachians, there are these core complexes still kind of exposed that have similar structures to them, and that's the interior part of the mountain belt.
14:10
SPEAKER_02: But you got to get pretty far into the mountain range to actually see that metamorphic core complex there.
14:15
SPEAKER_01: You do that.
14:16
SPEAKER_01: You do shock sometimes shockingly deep.
14:18
SPEAKER_01: It's it's like, man, we're going forever and we haven't gotten there yet.
14:21
SPEAKER_01: I know, I know, I know.
14:22
SPEAKER_01: But we I think we need to back out though, Jesse, because you we kind of glossed over this foreland basin.
14:28
SPEAKER_01: And I want to make sure that that's not some we need to do justice to that because that I think that's a little counterintuitive in terms of why you get this this basin before you get to the front range of the mountains that you're heading to, right?
14:42
SPEAKER_01: And it's it's like I guess my analogy would be if you take a king-size bed and I just lay in the middle of that king-sized bed, the mattress is gonna kind of sag down, leading to me, because I'm I'm the mountains, I'm the core of those mountains, right?
14:57
SPEAKER_01: And and so Chris, you are the mountain, we we we all know.
15:02
SPEAKER_02: I've I've slept in a tent with you enough times.
15:05
SPEAKER_02: I know your your air little air mattress always sags down to the middle of where you're sleeping.
15:11
SPEAKER_02: That's true.
15:12
SPEAKER_01: So, you know, it that's what's causing this foreland basin.
15:16
SPEAKER_01: Um, and it's kind of cool.
15:18
SPEAKER_01: But you know, like you'll get these almost like thickening wedge-shaped deposits of sedimentary rocks.
15:25
SPEAKER_01: They thicken towards the core of the mountain, they thin further away, you know, as you maybe just just get into that foreland basin.
15:33
SPEAKER_01: It's even kind of cool too.
15:35
SPEAKER_01: You get like more silt stones and and uh uh mudstones further away from it, these finer grain sediments, and then it thickens to sandstones and even conglomerates and it maybe even like fanglomerates, you know.
15:48
SPEAKER_01: Jesse, you and I you know talked a lot about this with our with our Gettysburg series, and and those are gonna be like buttoned up tight to the to where really it starts to get interesting as you start to now climb and get into the mountains.
16:03
SPEAKER_02: That's exactly right.
16:04
SPEAKER_02: And so you that progression, we're if we're driving, we're hoping to see the mountains, whether we're driving to Colorado or whether you're driving from you know Iowa headed towards the Appalachians or whether we're in Alberta driving west towards British Columbia, we're hoping to see the mountains.
16:16
SPEAKER_02: We start to see the mountains on the on the horizon, but we're still kind of on flat-lying sediment.
16:21
SPEAKER_02: But I think the way to visualize this is as soon as you can see the mountains on the horizon, like you can start to see the peaks and stuff, you're not actually on flat-lying sediments anymore.
16:30
SPEAKER_02: There starts to be little undulations, they're almost imperceptible.
16:34
SPEAKER_02: And Chris, the geological map, we were just talking about this offline, the geological map of Pennsylvania is really beautiful for this because there's a really they're like tens of kilometer sort of amplitude of these folds.
16:47
SPEAKER_02: They're really shallow anticlines and synclines that you'll drive across before you hit the front.
16:54
SPEAKER_02: And the front is kind of the first big mountain belt, usually the first big mountain range that you hit is the front.
17:01
SPEAKER_02: And before you hit that, as soon as you can kind of see that on the horizon on the highway, recognize that under your feet you're you're probably driving over shallowly folded sedimentary rocks because we're getting into rumpled carpet territory now.
17:16
SPEAKER_02: Um, we're starting to get that really long wavelength, uh low amplitude.
17:21
SPEAKER_02: Um, and does that make sense what I'm talking about?
17:23
SPEAKER_02: Like the wave, the wave itself is really long, really wide, and really low, not very high.
17:29
SPEAKER_02: So you get this really broad hill, and it's really hard to see.
17:32
SPEAKER_02: It's I've driven across this tons of times.
17:34
SPEAKER_02: It's imperceptible.
17:35
SPEAKER_01: Unless you take out you'd need a road cut or a railroad cut and a brutal compass to make the measurement, right?
17:42
SPEAKER_02: And we did this on the field camp that I taught.
17:44
SPEAKER_02: We would always do this, we'd make these measurements, and we would also be looking at like joint structures too, as well as the fold pattern.
17:50
SPEAKER_02: But you'd basically measure and be like, yeah, okay, we're dipping like five degrees to the east now, and then you'd drive a couple climbers and be like, oh, we're five degrees to the west now, and you'd have to tell the students, okay, what did we just cross over?
18:02
SPEAKER_02: And they'd be like, Oh, we crossed over an anticlimb.
18:04
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, it's like, yes, we did.
18:05
SPEAKER_02: But you it's the type of thing you can only, I mean, it's really hard to just see it as you're driving along.
18:11
SPEAKER_02: You have to kind of measure it, I guess, basically.
18:13
SPEAKER_02: But then, then, Chris, we get to the front, and there's usually a front, and the front, well, we get to the right.
18:20
SPEAKER_01: Are you talking about the first ridges right now?
18:22
SPEAKER_01: Like, are we the first ridges?
18:23
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, we're transitioning now into what we call the fold and thrust belt, right?
18:27
SPEAKER_02: Yes, there we go.
18:28
SPEAKER_02: And and all of these mountain ranges we're talking about have a fold and thrust belt that is well, correct me here, but to me, Chris, this is the most dramatic mountain ranges.
18:37
SPEAKER_02: These are the most dramatic mountains, is the fold and thrust belt, is where you get huge cliffs.
18:43
SPEAKER_02: They're not the most spectacular rocks, but they're the most spectacular relief.
18:47
SPEAKER_02: I think that's a good thing.
18:48
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, you get a lot of I I love these like really long linear ridges and then valleys in between, and then another ridge as you drive into these things, and and it's spectacularly beautiful.
19:02
SPEAKER_02: This this is like the stunning for me.
19:04
SPEAKER_02: The Canadian Rockies for me, I mean, it's kind of my home turf.
19:07
SPEAKER_02: I I'm they're near and dear to my heart because I was really kind of came of age geologically there.
19:12
SPEAKER_02: But the fold and thrust belt in the Canadian Rockies is spectacular.
19:16
SPEAKER_02: They are the most dramatic mountains I've ever seen.
19:18
SPEAKER_02: I think even more dramatic than the Alps in many ways.
19:21
SPEAKER_02: The fold and thrust sequence, and it's exactly as the word means fold.
19:26
SPEAKER_02: So we've got folded sediments, anticlines, and for they're most almost all sediments in this sequence.
19:31
SPEAKER_02: They're anticlines and synclines, and they're thrusted, meaning there's huge, shallow reverse faults that are sliding rocks kilometers and kilometers on top of each other, and they usually have a dip that it it kind of they go for a long ways and then they bend up.
19:48
SPEAKER_02: So if we're compressing the thing from west to east in the mountain range in the Canadian Rockies, I think it's the same in the American Rockies too, like in Glacier National Park.
19:57
SPEAKER_02: I think it's the same geology, but correct me, Chris.
19:59
SPEAKER_02: Where basically the thrust faults come from the west and they dip up to the east.
20:04
SPEAKER_02: So they kind of they're basically flat, big thrust sheets, and then they at when they terminate, they kind of bend up towards the east side.
20:11
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, but that should make sense though, right?
20:13
SPEAKER_01: Think about red rocks, right?
20:14
SPEAKER_01: That's exactly what happened with red rocks.
20:17
SPEAKER_01: The red rock amphitheater in Colorado, you know, those flat irons, that's what that is, right?
20:21
SPEAKER_01: Further to the west, that's where you get into the crystalline core, and that's where it punched up.
20:27
SPEAKER_01: Where it kind of hold on, we'll come to that.
20:29
SPEAKER_02: We'll go, we'll come to that.
20:30
SPEAKER_02: Let's focus on the fold and thrust belt because the you you can kind of for me, this is why you get really dri why the the mountains are really dramatic when you're driving from flat to the mountains.
20:40
SPEAKER_02: You come at those thrust sheets at an angle, like at the right angle.
20:44
SPEAKER_02: These thrust sheets thrust up sediments, and they kind of if you're if we're in the west, looking to the east, the sediments kind of are are thrust and pushed to the east, and then they're kind of curved up a little bit, like a little ramp, like um one of those old school aircraft carriers that has like a little ramp for their jets launching, you know, that that that kind of thing.
21:04
SPEAKER_02: It like dips up.
21:05
SPEAKER_02: And what that means is when you're coming back against those sediments, when you're driving the opposite direction, you have a flat cliff face that you're looking at because that that ramp up just prevent presents like beautiful, uh, beautiful, beautiful like cliffs that you're facing.
21:20
SPEAKER_02: In where I in Canada, when we drive from Calgary into the Rockies, there's a couple really spectacular ones.
21:26
SPEAKER_02: The McConnell Fault, the McConnell thrust fault, huge thrust sheet that has kind of put the Mount Yamnaska as one of these classic ones.
21:33
SPEAKER_02: There's the Mount Rundel fault.
21:34
SPEAKER_02: No, so there'll be a bunch of them that are kind of stacked parallel to each other with a a bunch of little thrusts in there, and they're all folded as well, so it's super complicated geology, but just makes for spectacular scenery in the fold and thrust belt.
21:48
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, and I think of this kind of geology too, Jesse, is this part of it is thin skinned geology.
21:55
SPEAKER_01: Where we're gonna get to thick skinned geology.
22:00
SPEAKER_01: As we get deeper into the mountains, right?
22:02
SPEAKER_01: Um to me, Jesse, this is uh sometimes what I'll do to show this is I'll I'll have uh you know a student hold a piece of paper, just a line sheet of paper tight, and I'll just put my hand underneath the piece of paper and I'll I'll just gradually push up with my thumb until my thumb pops through.
22:20
SPEAKER_01: And then you look at the paper, and the paper follows that that uplift where my thumb punched through all the way around, right?
22:28
SPEAKER_01: And that's what you're talking about with this nice steep lip, you know.
22:32
SPEAKER_01: So anyway, that's that's a nice analogy.
22:35
SPEAKER_02: Well done, Chris.
22:35
SPEAKER_02: I like that one.
22:36
SPEAKER_02: That's a good one.
22:37
SPEAKER_02: Thanks.
22:37
SPEAKER_02: Um thanks.
22:38
SPEAKER_02: So the fold and thrust belt, the the spectacular parts.
22:41
SPEAKER_02: Now, the the Colorado Rockies are slightly different from this in some ways.
22:45
SPEAKER_02: Um, I don't think that the fold and thrust belt is necessarily the most spectacular part, but you know, there's consistent themes here from Glacier National Park up to all the up through the Canadian Rockies, basically.
22:57
SPEAKER_02: And then bringing it back to Jenny, Chris, in the Appalachians, we have kind of the opposite thing at a much less dramatic scale because the mountains are so much older.
23:08
SPEAKER_02: But we have the exact same sequence.
23:10
SPEAKER_02: If you're driving from Michigan to Ohio and then into the rot into the Appalachians, whether you come into Pennsylvania or go down into Virginia, very similar, you'll kind of cross those really broad, long wavelength, low amplitude um folds.
23:25
SPEAKER_02: You'll hit in my part of the world what's called the Allegheny Front, which is that lip, the first lip of that thrust sheet, except the thrusting was going the other way.
23:34
SPEAKER_02: The thrusting was east to west.
23:36
SPEAKER_02: And so that all that structure is um is kind of compressed there and it's kind of just going the opposite direction.
23:44
SPEAKER_02: You're driving in this way.
23:45
SPEAKER_02: And then I live right in the first valley in the Ridge and Valley province.
23:49
SPEAKER_02: So I live in the fold and thrust belt, and it's a really old fold and thrust belt, which means that we don't have these spectacular ridge faces and cliff faces that are that are created by the thrust sheets.
23:59
SPEAKER_02: Instead, what we see is a lot more of the folding because it's been eroded down deep.
24:03
SPEAKER_02: And so we see these huge, beautiful valleys.
24:06
SPEAKER_02: Chris, we drove to Gettysburg and and uh we'll be driving around Gettysburg again early later this summer, but you know, just driving from Gettysburg back to State College, Pennsylvania, we drive through basically all fold and thrust belt, which is the the ridge and valley province, and the ridges and valleys are defined by these folds.
24:22
SPEAKER_02: It's spectacular scenery, it's just not as dramatic as the fold and thrust belts out in the Rockies.
24:26
SPEAKER_01: Uh yeah, I you keep saying that, and uh, I don't know, it's hard.
24:30
SPEAKER_01: I'm not gonna give that to you.
24:32
SPEAKER_01: It's it's really spectacular.
24:34
SPEAKER_01: Um it's dramatic.
24:36
SPEAKER_01: You know, you and I, uh, how many times would we just like hit each other as we're driving?
24:40
SPEAKER_01: Like, are you kidding me?
24:41
SPEAKER_01: Look at what we're looking at here.
24:42
SPEAKER_01: You know, this is this is insane.
24:43
SPEAKER_01: It and it's just uh you're right, they're different mountains, they're old and they're they're not muscular, but they're they're still really spectacular, and it and it is still this kind of textbook thing that we're talking about here today, too.
24:56
SPEAKER_01: That's true.
24:56
SPEAKER_01: So that's true.
24:58
SPEAKER_02: I I agree, yeah.
24:59
SPEAKER_02: All right, you're right.
25:00
SPEAKER_02: We live in spectacular area.
25:01
SPEAKER_02: And the Appalachians are beautiful.
25:02
SPEAKER_02: They're just uh I don't find them as um they're certainly not as rugged, they're not as raw, but in some ways they are I think they're almost better for geolog for teaching geology because it shows this this thing that we're talking about, it shows it almost way better than a modern mountain range because it kind of eroded through the noise a little bit.
25:22
SPEAKER_02: We can actually see the underlying process in some ways uh a little bit more.
25:26
SPEAKER_02: Anyway, okay, fold and thrust belt.
25:28
SPEAKER_02: You'll be in that for actually, it's a surprising amount of time, Chris.
25:32
SPEAKER_02: I mean, I don't know the numbers off the top of my head of the sort of scale of fold and thrust belt, the width of fold and thrust belts or anything like that.
25:42
SPEAKER_02: It's many dozens to hundreds of kilometers in most cases, right?
25:47
SPEAKER_02: I mean, it it's not it's on that that scale.
25:50
SPEAKER_02: I mean, we're talking about the state of Pennsylvania, it's at least a quarter of the state of Pennsylvania, of the the the width of the state of Pennsylvania, if not more than that, you'd be in fold and thrust belt.
26:02
SPEAKER_02: And that that's the wider part of the Appalachian fold and thrust belt, but it is still that.
26:06
SPEAKER_02: And when you get to the Canadian Rockies, yeah, you're you're driving man, I I I would only want to have you.
26:14
SPEAKER_02: It's at it's 50 kilometers or 100 kilometers wide, some something like that.
26:18
SPEAKER_02: And especially when you're taking these windy mountain roads, you're gonna be in it for a while in the fold and thrust belt.
26:24
SPEAKER_02: So it's a surprising amount.
26:25
SPEAKER_02: And then we get as you get into the mountains, into the interior, you get into the the core, basically core metamorphic complexes.
26:33
SPEAKER_02: And where do you see these, Chris, on Summer Science?
26:36
SPEAKER_01: Though the first time, like when I was talking earlier about the bighorn mountains, you'll see them in the bighns.
26:42
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, absolutely.
26:44
SPEAKER_01: But you know, you we're talking you know, we drive for maybe 30, 40 miles through the fold and thrust belt before we get to any of these the deeper crystalline core where you have these harder, older, more tortured rocks that we love.
26:59
SPEAKER_02: This is do you guys get to the bitter root range on SummerSound?
27:02
SPEAKER_02: Or do you not get Survey?
27:04
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, used to okay, yeah, yeah.
27:07
SPEAKER_02: Do you head up from um do you go Yellowstone Tetons and then head up?
27:13
SPEAKER_01: I've done it, I've done it both ways.
27:15
SPEAKER_01: We've gone from the Tetons and then you go around the backside through Idaho up uh into Montana.
27:21
SPEAKER_01: And then lately we've been going from Yellowstone, so just going, you know, right out the north entrance of Yellowstone into up through Livingston and then over to Butte and then up.
27:30
SPEAKER_01: Gotcha.
27:31
SPEAKER_02: Okay.
27:31
SPEAKER_02: So I mean, I think the best place to to kind of see this, if you're trying to see this, you'd want to drive through Colorado or up through Montana, basically, from east to west, and then you'd hit the interior, you'd get out of the fold and thrust belt somewhere kind of around the Ohio, uh, excuse me, not Ohio.
27:51
SPEAKER_02: Ohio's nowhere near anything interesting.
27:53
SPEAKER_02: Um you would hit it kind of near the eastern edge of Idaho, or that the kind of little carve out in Utah is where you hit you move from the fold and thrust belt into some of the core complex, the interior sort of crystalline core.
28:07
SPEAKER_02: And that's not hard to see.
28:09
SPEAKER_02: No, it's not hard to see topography.
28:11
SPEAKER_02: Jenny to see completely.
28:13
SPEAKER_01: Yeah.
28:14
SPEAKER_01: You know, the rocks are just totally different.
28:16
SPEAKER_01: You go from these unaltered, well, like unmetamorphosed, not a lot of heat, not a lot of pressure, to these sedimentary rocks, and all of a sudden now you have these rocks are just shockingly different.
28:26
SPEAKER_01: And it doesn't take a trained eye to notice that difference at all.
28:30
SPEAKER_02: And it it's really spectacular to see this.
28:32
SPEAKER_02: I mean, we did uh field camp, our Penn State field camp goes or um used to go, at least, to the um the Pioneer Metamorphic Core Complex, which is up in northern Idaho there, which is kind of if you continue west, you'd have to head south a little bit, I think, from the Glacier National Park, head down, you would you would hit that next core metamorphic complex.
28:53
SPEAKER_02: And these are the muscular routes or the routes to very muscular mountains.
28:58
SPEAKER_02: And these core complex things are inboard into interior to the mountain range across all of the Rockies.
29:05
SPEAKER_02: So basically, you work your way up Utah, uh Nevada, Utah, Idaho, all the way up into British Columbia there, you're gonna have metamorphic core complexes all the way up there.
29:15
SPEAKER_02: And these are really high-grade metamorphosed rocks.
29:17
SPEAKER_02: Again, these are the kind of deep interior roots of the mountain belt that have been exhumed, and they get exhumed not all at once, but kind of in bits and pieces throughout that time.
29:28
SPEAKER_02: If we head to the Appalachians, the Appalachians are a bit different again because they're older.
29:34
SPEAKER_02: We have a lot more of the metamorphic core exposed.
29:37
SPEAKER_02: So if you get to Philadelphia in our um our class, it's called 201 Earth Materials, it's the rocks and minerals class, basically, Chris.
29:44
SPEAKER_02: There's a field trip every year that goes that heads heads east.
29:48
SPEAKER_02: We have to get through the fold and thrust belt.
29:50
SPEAKER_02: You get to basically Harrisburg, and then you're into the the well, you're basically into the core metamorphic complex.
29:56
SPEAKER_02: There's high grade rocks, there's gneisses, the Baltimore Gneiss complex.
29:59
SPEAKER_02: There's this famous rock called the Wissahick and Schist that's all up and down the eastern seaboard there.
30:04
SPEAKER_02: There's the Manhattan Schist in in New York City, that's the Manhattan schist.
30:07
SPEAKER_02: It's one of these core metamorphic units as well.
30:10
SPEAKER_02: And those are kind of they're much more widespread in the Appalachian, uh, the Piedmont of the Appalachians, in part because it's a lot older.
30:18
SPEAKER_02: Like we don't have all this sedimentary cover that's still there.
30:21
SPEAKER_02: We've eroded much further down into the mountain range over the you know 200 million years since the Appalachians formed.
30:27
SPEAKER_01: So do we want to talk about what you can see?
30:31
SPEAKER_01: This would diverge a little bit from the level of, you know, now you got to have a trained eye to see these kinds of things, and only some of the ranges have it.
30:39
SPEAKER_01: But I'm talking what about the suture zone?
30:41
SPEAKER_01: What about uh, you know, where the the actual spot where the two continents, where the ocean basin kind of got zippered up, it closed up and the two continents then mashed together.
30:52
SPEAKER_01: It's a mess, right?
30:53
SPEAKER_01: It's a geologic mess, but you you get go full field lights and let's give it a try.
30:58
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, absolutely.
30:59
SPEAKER_01: Well well, okay.
31:00
SPEAKER_01: I mean, some mountain ranges like the Himalayas are known for this, the Alps are known for this, um, showing these kind of like uh a cross section of the oceanic crust where you have pillow basalts and these sheeted dikes and gabbro complexes, and that host of rocks all together is called an ophiolite complex.
31:21
SPEAKER_01: Really, it kind of marks where the subduction zone was closed up and it's it became a different kind of boundary than at that point, where it's like a continent to continent convergent mountain.
31:33
SPEAKER_01: So they're called ophiolites, um, and it marks like when you see those, it's like, oh, this is where it actually closed up um and transitioned to this kind of boundary.
31:43
SPEAKER_02: I think that's a really good point, Chris.
31:45
SPEAKER_02: I've never um there are arguments that in the Appalachians that I think pretty good arguments that there are ophiolite complexes preserved in like the Baltimore Gneiss complex, and they're like slivers of oceanic crust that have been kind of kind of caught up in the mix, I guess, right?
32:00
SPEAKER_02: Of this continent-continent collision.
32:02
SPEAKER_02: In the Rocky Mountains, it's not necessarily a classic continent-continent collision like the Himalayas or something like that.
32:08
SPEAKER_02: So you might not have this oceanic slivers.
32:10
SPEAKER_02: Instead, what we get in those ones and the Alps are are are kind of similar, or well, the Veriscan erogeny, um, which is uh in uh you know in in Europe, in mainland Europe there, is kind of similar to this.
32:22
SPEAKER_02: Instead, we get subduction zone batholiths basically.
32:27
SPEAKER_02: So the Sierra Nevada batholith, the towaleum knee rocks that are in um Yosemite National Park, or the Idaho Bath, or up in Canada, we get the coast ranges, North Cascades.
32:38
SPEAKER_02: Those are all igneous rocks that are subduction zone related, and those are again further into the mountain range.
32:45
SPEAKER_02: So we kind of get this lateral sequence.
32:46
SPEAKER_02: It's kind of I think of them as like ribbons of geology that are parallel to the mountain belt.
32:52
SPEAKER_02: So if you're working from interior of the continent, again, if we go back to our driving analogy, which I've done so many times growing up in the plains, is if you're driving from flatland into the mountains and through the mountains, you'll go from flat-lying sediments, very gently folded sediments, which is very hard to see.
33:09
SPEAKER_02: You'll see a short period of like actually folded sediments that you can kind of follow the continuous folds, and then you get into the fold and thrust belt where it's all kind of a jumbled mess, and that's the spectacular mountains.
33:19
SPEAKER_02: Then you'll get into the metamorphic core complexes, and then if you go past that metamorphic core complex, depending on the type of orogeny you're driving through, you'll either hit like ophiolite packages or you could run into subduction zone magmatism, basically, and accreted terrains.
33:36
SPEAKER_02: So foreign terrains that have been smashed onto the edge of the continent, which is the classic argument for much of the western United States, is like really coastal ranges and things like that.
33:48
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, they've just been smashed on to the edge of the continent, added to the continental mass.
33:53
SPEAKER_02: Um geologic mess.
33:56
SPEAKER_02: A geologic mess, but there's interesting, consistent themes.
33:59
SPEAKER_02: And Chris, before you kind of brought this up, um, before you know, Jenny kind of brought this up, I hadn't really I hadn't really appreciated the similarities.
34:07
SPEAKER_02: I mean, you kind of know this classic textbook thing of the Foreland Basin, the fold and thrust belt, the metamorphic core complex, but I hadn't really appreciated like how many I'd seen and taught in and you know brought students to and and how many consistencies there are.
34:22
SPEAKER_02: Like, you know what I mean?
34:23
SPEAKER_02: You you see the textbook thing, you you kind of recognize it, but you don't recognize why it's the textbook image.
34:29
SPEAKER_02: Does that make sense?
34:30
SPEAKER_02: Like you kind of together and look at them be like, oh wait, this is why it's a textbook thing.
34:36
SPEAKER_01: Yeah, well, I think I think you and I we you know we've seen this so many times, and we kind of take it for granted that you know in our minds it just makes sense.
34:45
SPEAKER_01: Oh, this is why we see what we see, and this is why we're seeing it.
34:48
SPEAKER_01: Um, but to somebody that's not a classically trained geoscientist, they you know, they it's you don't you don't make sense of that right away.
34:56
SPEAKER_02: It's not automatically intuitive and and uh you know but I think as you say, Chris, like it allows you to see the world with a different lens on in this geological pattern that we get in mountain ranges, in the vast majority of at least large-scale mountain ranges.
35:12
SPEAKER_02: Now, there's a lot of little mountain belts that don't follow this trend at all.
35:15
SPEAKER_02: So little ones, small mountain ranges, relatively small ones, don't follow this trend.
35:19
SPEAKER_02: We're talking about kind of continental scale mountain ranges.
35:21
SPEAKER_02: Um, and there's active ones, right?
35:23
SPEAKER_02: There's active foreland basins being developed around the world right now, and there's active tectonics that kind of show that this is actually a real phenomenon.
35:34
SPEAKER_02: Um, the Persian Gulf is a good example of a foreland basin.
35:38
SPEAKER_02: There's a big orogenic belt, there's this down flexure happening.
35:41
SPEAKER_02: You could see the active fold and thrusting, you could see the tectonic movements going on, and then we can see sedimentation happening.
35:48
SPEAKER_02: And so we have uh some modern examples of this, but we have a lot of really nice uh ancient examples of this process.
35:56
SPEAKER_01: So Jesse, I got a question for you.
35:58
SPEAKER_01: Do the Appalachians do they have this kind of high plateau on the other side or not anymore?
36:04
SPEAKER_02: Uh you mean on the east side or on the west side?
36:07
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, the east side.
36:08
SPEAKER_02: Yes.
36:09
SPEAKER_02: So there's some really interesting, and it's relatively new research that uh argues that in the Akkadian orogeny, one of the I mean, we the so the well that that there's several different originic episodes in the Appalachian Belt.
36:25
SPEAKER_02: One of the earlier ones, the Akkadian, there's an argument up in Maine in New England specifically, that that was a really high plateau, something called an altiplano.
36:34
SPEAKER_02: That's very Tibetan plateau of today, right?
36:38
SPEAKER_02: Much like the Tibetan plateau, much like the Andes, the Andes have a high plateau, really flat, not much relief, but really, really high elevation.
36:46
SPEAKER_02: And there's a really some really strong arguments that that used to exist, especially in the New England part of the Appalachians.
36:53
SPEAKER_02: And there's some there's some the metamorphic petrologists, people studying the metamorphism of the the Appalachians, there are hints of incredibly high temperature.
37:03
SPEAKER_02: This is a really hot origin, meaning it most likely was really thick as well.
37:08
SPEAKER_02: We just don't have a spectacular record of that.
37:10
SPEAKER_01: So that's a really interesting point, though, Jesse, because what can happen then with when you get to that kind of thickness and that kind of heat down deep, it can change from compression.
37:21
SPEAKER_01: Everything that we've talked about now is compression, and you can actually get extension then in that plateau.
37:28
SPEAKER_02: This is a really, really important point, Chris, because what we're describing is mountain belts, especially when we talk about metamorphic core complexes.
37:36
SPEAKER_02: We're talking about the the Rockies, the Appalachians.
37:39
SPEAKER_02: These are mountain belts that went through their mountain building episode and then have relaxed.
37:44
SPEAKER_02: And now you've got this over-thickened crust that's super, as you described, really hot in the middle part that can't be sustained, and so we we collapse this thing.
37:53
SPEAKER_02: This thing collapsed down and it kind of extends out on itself, which helps exhume those core metamorphic complexes up.
38:00
SPEAKER_02: So we're kind of talking about not super active mountain of mountain building events.
38:05
SPEAKER_02: The mountains are still there, but the building phase is significantly decreased, it's not happening much at all.
38:14
SPEAKER_02: So that's the analogy here.
38:16
SPEAKER_02: Whereas modern active mountain building events, they're still going up and building plateaus, and we can kind of watch it with GPS in a way now.
38:25
SPEAKER_02: So, anyway, that's it's a really great point that you bring up there.
38:29
SPEAKER_02: Is it we're talking about ones that have already quote unquote relaxed, they've started to spread out under their own weight.
38:37
SPEAKER_02: Yep.
38:38
SPEAKER_01: Yep.
38:38
SPEAKER_01: Well, it's fun, man.
38:40
SPEAKER_02: Mountains are fun.
38:42
SPEAKER_01: They are.
38:42
SPEAKER_01: They are.
38:43
SPEAKER_01: Um, I don't know.
38:45
SPEAKER_01: What do you think?
38:45
SPEAKER_01: Is that does that do a good job of answering Jenny's question?
38:48
SPEAKER_02: Uh oh, I think it does a great job answering Jenny's question.
38:51
SPEAKER_02: I'll bet there's a bunch of questions that come up.
38:53
SPEAKER_02: So if you're listening to this and you have questions for us, please send us an email.
38:58
SPEAKER_02: Um, there's a contact us link at our website, plangeocast.com.
39:01
SPEAKER_02: I think this is a really fun topic, Chris, and and just thinking about it in this way is uh is fun to do.
39:08
SPEAKER_02: Um, and I think it's uh it's an important thing to consider for people who are just driving around the world and like to go outside and like to go hiking and just uh you know think about why do I see this this consistent sequence and or even recognize hey, this sequence is consistent across many mountain belts.
39:24
SPEAKER_02: That's really cool.
39:25
SPEAKER_02: It is, I think it is.
39:26
SPEAKER_01: This is this is one of the things that like I'm passionate about is trying to just take things that we uh we see in our everyday lives or we see when we go on vacations or things like this and just try to make them make sense.
39:41
SPEAKER_01: And I was a little nervous about pitching this to you, Justin, because it you know, in my time, in my time away um recently, you've gotten very, very doctory with your episodes.
39:52
SPEAKER_01: And I was like, I don't know if if like I don't know if this is gonna fly with him.
39:57
SPEAKER_02: This is pretty doctory.
39:58
SPEAKER_02: This is pretty doctory.
40:00
SPEAKER_02: Well, Chris, apart you the other the other people that I talk, my other friends I talk geology to, they're all doctors, unfortunately.
40:07
SPEAKER_02: So, you know, it's you and a bunch of doctors are the people I like talking geology with.
40:12
SPEAKER_02: So that's it.
40:14
SPEAKER_01: Well anyway, I just I I was a little nervous about that.
40:17
SPEAKER_02: I didn't know this was gonna be up to up to Stevie's really uh really he's pretty lowbrow too, so um he fits in well.
40:25
SPEAKER_02: That's right, he does.
40:26
SPEAKER_02: He does put you in your place.
40:28
SPEAKER_02: I think I I think it's fun, man.
40:29
SPEAKER_02: This is a great upstance.
40:30
SPEAKER_02: I I would be really curious to know if people have any other questions uh about things like this um that are that are kind of related to this topic because it's it's ripe for talking.
40:39
SPEAKER_02: There's more aspects of this.
40:40
SPEAKER_02: We're really just skimming the surface.
40:41
SPEAKER_02: This is the this is the intro level, maybe not quite intro level, maybe second, third year um uh geology undergrad type level content here.
40:49
SPEAKER_02: So but it's really important and really useful.
40:52
SPEAKER_02: So I think so.
40:53
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, absolutely.
40:54
SPEAKER_02: Cool, man.
40:55
SPEAKER_02: Well, it's good to see you.
40:56
SPEAKER_02: I hope to see your face again soon.
40:58
SPEAKER_02: Yeah, we will.
40:59
SPEAKER_02: You will.
41:00
SPEAKER_02: All right, good man.
41:01
SPEAKER_02: Uh hey, you can follow us on social media as we're at plant geocast.
41:03
SPEAKER_02: Shoot us an email, contact us link, shoot us an email, contact us link on our website, plantgeocast.com, and uh head over to our Camp GO mobile app.
41:10
SPEAKER_02: We've still got a ton of great stuff there.
41:12
SPEAKER_02: We send your contact code away with you.
41:14
SPEAKER_02: So stay tuned, man.
41:16
SPEAKER_02: Cheers.
41:17
SPEAKER_02: Peace.