Latest / Missing Pages / Episode 10: War Without End

Transcript

Episode 10: War Without End · Missing Pages

0:00
SPEAKER_00: hey hey welcome to missing pages this is episode 10 war without end in this episode
0:08
SPEAKER_00: we will be talking about all of the conflicts that happened throughout the world in
0:13
SPEAKER_00: the 1600s prior to 1676 where the colonies changed forever
0:20
SPEAKER_00: As always,
0:21
SPEAKER_00: if you want to leave comments on this episode or read any more of my writings,
0:26
SPEAKER_00: please head over to missingpages.substack.com.
0:30
SPEAKER_00: We'd love to have you over there.
0:32
SPEAKER_00: Without further ado, this is episode 10, War Without End.
0:43
SPEAKER_00: Where are these missing pages?
0:44
SPEAKER_00: This map, we must have these pages back.
0:49
SPEAKER_00: This one's got pages missing.
0:50
SPEAKER_00: Why are the pages missing?
0:57
SPEAKER_00: Like a book with missing pages.
0:58
SPEAKER_00: War is a mainstay in human history.
1:16
SPEAKER_00: I'm currently reading a world history just to gain some extra context surrounding
1:21
SPEAKER_00: what I'm reading about American history.
1:24
SPEAKER_00: And I've realized that I've become a little bit desensitized to the amount of
1:29
SPEAKER_00: violence that's being referenced.
1:32
SPEAKER_00: Beheadings, strangulations, poisonings, mass murder, and genocide fill the pages.
1:40
SPEAKER_00: There's constant raping and pillaging, burning and massacring of villages and cities alike.
1:47
SPEAKER_00: If we think back to,
1:49
SPEAKER_00: all the way back to episodes 2,
1:50
SPEAKER_00: 3,
1:50
SPEAKER_00: 4,
1:52
SPEAKER_00: the world that the colonists were accustomed to prior to moving over to the New World...
2:01
SPEAKER_00: was one where death was normal and mundane.
2:06
SPEAKER_00: It is hard for us to put ourselves in this mindset, especially now in America.
2:11
SPEAKER_00: A war has not reached our shores for over 80 years.
2:15
SPEAKER_00: A whole lifetime has passed.
2:18
SPEAKER_00: Similar to slavery, violence and conflict was a blanket that wrapped around the entire period.
2:25
SPEAKER_00: And it's a wonder that we as a species even made it to this point of peace in history.
2:32
SPEAKER_00: Clearly, there are still conflicts, but the ever-present danger that once was is no longer in America.
2:40
SPEAKER_00: So I want to use this episode to give a full sense of the scale that I'm speaking of.
2:45
SPEAKER_00: I've tried to incorporate the contextual conflicts in previous episodes,
2:49
SPEAKER_00: but there are many that I've not covered.
2:51
SPEAKER_00: No one is a saint in this story.
2:54
SPEAKER_00: The victims and assailants alike are not sorted by race nor nationality.
3:01
SPEAKER_00: Bernard Bailyn, in his book, The Barbara Sears, laid it out well.
3:04
SPEAKER_00: Quote,
3:05
SPEAKER_00: All the people involved,
3:06
SPEAKER_00: Native Americans,
3:07
SPEAKER_00: Europeans,
3:08
SPEAKER_00: laterally Africans,
3:09
SPEAKER_00: struggled for survival with outlandish aliens,
3:12
SPEAKER_00: rude people,
3:13
SPEAKER_00: uncultured in what mattered.
3:15
SPEAKER_00: All,
3:16
SPEAKER_00: Native Americans,
3:17
SPEAKER_00: Europeans,
3:18
SPEAKER_00: and Africans,
3:19
SPEAKER_00: felt themselves dragged down or threatened with descent into squalor and savagery.
3:25
SPEAKER_00: All sought to restore the civility they once had known.
3:29
SPEAKER_00: End quote.
3:31
SPEAKER_00: Now,
3:31
SPEAKER_00: when we look at the AP notes,
3:34
SPEAKER_00: there isn't much here that I will be covering,
3:38
SPEAKER_00: though because I'm covering some of the secondary or even tertiary conflicts,
3:44
SPEAKER_00: it's understandable.
3:45
SPEAKER_00: However,
3:46
SPEAKER_00: there are a couple brief mentions of some of these,
3:48
SPEAKER_00: and one in particular that I'd like to talk about.
3:51
SPEAKER_00: We'll start with the Halfway Covenant, 1662.
3:57
SPEAKER_00: Now this isn't necessarily a conflict,
4:01
SPEAKER_00: but it does give good context around the religious turmoil that was rampant at this
4:06
SPEAKER_00: time and some of the changes that had to be made in order to prevent violence.
4:10
SPEAKER_00: So the notes state,
4:11
SPEAKER_00: what was the problem with the conversion relation for second generation Puritans in
4:16
SPEAKER_00: the 1650s and 1660s?
4:20
SPEAKER_00: And I state that less people were making the conversion relation.
4:23
SPEAKER_00: The question is asked, why do you think this problem existed?
4:26
SPEAKER_00: I wrote, they didn't know what persecution was like, and it was embarrassing and difficult.
4:32
SPEAKER_00: Moving on, by 1650, fewer than half the adults in John Winthrop's congregation were saints.
4:39
SPEAKER_00: What problem did these second-generation Puritans have concerning their children?
4:43
SPEAKER_00: I wrote, they were not saints, so their children could not be baptized.
4:47
SPEAKER_00: continuing the solution to this problem was the halfway covenant of sixteen sixty
4:52
SPEAKER_00: two what did the halfway covenant do it permitted children of all baptized members
4:58
SPEAKER_00: including children of non-saints to receive baptism however the children of the
5:03
SPEAKER_00: second and third generation were not saints and finally what was one major effect
5:08
SPEAKER_00: of the halfway covenant on puritan society
5:11
SPEAKER_00: It blurred the distinction between the two groups of saints and non-saints,
5:15
SPEAKER_00: further diluting the spiritual purity of the colony.
5:19
SPEAKER_00: For another set of notes about the context surrounding this era, we get the English Restoration in 1660.
5:26
SPEAKER_00: From 1649 until 1660,
5:28
SPEAKER_00: England went through a period of civil war that resulted in the rise of Oliver
5:32
SPEAKER_00: Cromwell to power.
5:34
SPEAKER_00: during this period england did not have a king and puritans gained power slowing
5:38
SPEAKER_00: their emigration to north america after cromwell died in sixteen fifty eight the
5:43
SPEAKER_00: puritans lost power and the restoration took place in sixteen sixty what was the
5:48
SPEAKER_00: restoration i wrote the monarchy was restored king charles the second who ruled
5:54
SPEAKER_00: from sixteen sixty to sixteen eighty five from the stuart family
5:58
SPEAKER_00: Before the Restoration,
5:59
SPEAKER_00: England had made little effort to rule its overseas territories,
6:03
SPEAKER_00: including its American colonies.
6:05
SPEAKER_00: However, what did Charles II try to do once taking power as king?
6:10
SPEAKER_00: I wrote,
6:16
SPEAKER_00: What are some possible reasons as to why Charles II wanted to tighten England's control of the colonies?
6:22
SPEAKER_00: This is a multiple response question,
6:24
SPEAKER_00: and I wrote he didn't like the Puritans and wanted to check up on them and to
6:28
SPEAKER_00: profit off of the colonies.
6:31
SPEAKER_00: And finally, what are two major ways in which King Charles II tightened his control over the colonies?
6:37
SPEAKER_00: I wrote he enforced trade restrictions and gave control of three new colonies to
6:41
SPEAKER_00: his supporters,
6:42
SPEAKER_00: Carolina,
6:43
SPEAKER_00: New York,
6:44
SPEAKER_00: and New Jersey.
6:45
SPEAKER_00: And finally,
6:46
SPEAKER_00: we get to the one conflict that is covered in here that I have not covered yet,
6:51
SPEAKER_00: besides the two that are coming next episode,
6:53
SPEAKER_00: and that is Pope's Rebellion or the Pueblo Revolt.
6:56
SPEAKER_00: Despite good relations overall,
6:58
SPEAKER_00: there was conflict between the Spanish in New Mexico and the Pueblo Indians.
7:02
SPEAKER_00: What happened in the famous 1680 Pueblo Revolt, also known as Pope's Rebellion, and why?
7:09
SPEAKER_00: I wrote, And that's all for the AP notes.
7:10
SPEAKER_00: Now,
7:11
SPEAKER_00: I didn't expect there to be a lot here already,
7:12
SPEAKER_00: so the lack of specific notes about smaller conflicts is not surprising.
7:30
SPEAKER_00: But there are several events that I do think are worth talking about to give
7:35
SPEAKER_00: context to the amount of violence that was constant in the colonies and before the
7:42
SPEAKER_00: colonies even existed.
7:44
SPEAKER_00: So grab your sword and shield and join me as we fill in those missing pages.
8:00
SPEAKER_00: Last episode, I discussed how slavery was not invented by the English.
8:07
SPEAKER_00: It was merely adapted for use in the New World.
8:11
SPEAKER_00: Slavery was and is as much of a part of the human story as inventing the wheel or going to the moon was.
8:20
SPEAKER_00: Human history is a messy place filled with death and misery far beyond what any single story could tell.
8:27
SPEAKER_00: Conflict and conquest, disease and destruction, holy wars and genocides.
8:33
SPEAKER_00: All of it is a human construct.
8:36
SPEAKER_00: So I want to use this episode to expand on some of those conflicts that are present throughout this era.
8:42
SPEAKER_00: I will be covering the wars on the North American continent that I have not touched yet,
8:47
SPEAKER_00: and the religious fights that were ever present in the old world and the new.
8:52
SPEAKER_00: All of this conflict will lead into the two wars that define the end of this era
8:58
SPEAKER_00: and mark a major shift in the colonial world.
9:01
SPEAKER_00: We're going to start not in America, but in Europe.
9:07
SPEAKER_00: to give some context,
9:08
SPEAKER_00: and we'll travel around the world before we end up in America,
9:12
SPEAKER_00: and we'll also travel through some time before we even get to the colonies.
9:18
SPEAKER_00: Historians have called the era that is being discussed this season,
9:21
SPEAKER_00: more specifically the middle of the 17th century,
9:24
SPEAKER_00: the general crisis.
9:26
SPEAKER_00: Jeffrey Parker lays out the myriad troubles throughout the world at this time in
9:30
SPEAKER_00: his article,
9:31
SPEAKER_00: Crisis and Catastrophe,
9:33
SPEAKER_00: the Global Crisis of the 17th Century Reconsidered in the American Historical Review.
9:40
SPEAKER_00: This is a long quote, but it is necessary to give a full sense of the scale we are talking about here.
9:46
SPEAKER_00: and why survival was the main driver in this time.
9:50
SPEAKER_00: The mid-17th century saw more cases of simultaneous state breakdown around the
9:56
SPEAKER_00: globe than any previous or subsequent age,
10:00
SPEAKER_00: something historians have called the general crisis.
10:03
SPEAKER_00: In the 1640s, Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed.
10:08
SPEAKER_00: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, disintegrated.
10:13
SPEAKER_00: Much of the Spanish monarchy, the first global empire in history, seceded.
10:18
SPEAKER_00: and the entire Stuart monarchy rebelled Scotland, Ireland, England, and its American colonies.
10:25
SPEAKER_00: In addition,
10:26
SPEAKER_00: just in the year 1648,
10:28
SPEAKER_00: a tide of urban rebellions began in Russia,
10:30
SPEAKER_00: the largest state in the world,
10:32
SPEAKER_00: and the Fronde Revolt paralyzed France,
10:35
SPEAKER_00: the most populous state in Europe.
10:37
SPEAKER_00: Meanwhile, in Istanbul, Europe's largest city, irate subjects strangled Sultan Ibrahim.
10:44
SPEAKER_00: And in London, King Charles went down on trial for war crimes, the first head of state to do so.
10:50
SPEAKER_00: In the 1650s, Sweden and Denmark came close to revolution.
10:55
SPEAKER_00: Scotland and Ireland disappeared as autonomous states,
10:57
SPEAKER_00: the Dutch Republic radically changed its form of government,
11:00
SPEAKER_00: the Mughal Empire,
11:01
SPEAKER_00: then the richest state in the world,
11:03
SPEAKER_00: experienced two years of civil war following the arrest,
11:06
SPEAKER_00: deposition,
11:07
SPEAKER_00: and imprisonment of its ruler.
11:09
SPEAKER_00: The frequency of popular revolts around the world also peaked during the mid-17th century.
11:15
SPEAKER_00: In China,
11:16
SPEAKER_00: the number of major armed uprisings rose from around 10 in the 1610s to more than
11:20
SPEAKER_00: 70 in the 1620s and more than 80 in the 1630s,
11:22
SPEAKER_00: affecting 160 counties and involving well over a million people.
11:31
SPEAKER_00: In Japan,
11:32
SPEAKER_00: some 40 revolts and 200 lesser rural uprisings occurred between 1590 and 1642,
11:38
SPEAKER_00: a total unmatched for two centuries.
11:42
SPEAKER_00: In the largest uprising at Shimabara on Kyushu Island in 1637-1638 involved some 25,000 insurgents.
11:52
SPEAKER_00: In Russia, a wave of rebellions in 1648 and 49 shook the central government to its foundations.
12:00
SPEAKER_00: Of the 25 major peasant revolts recorded in 17th century Germany and Switzerland,
12:05
SPEAKER_00: more than half took place between 1626 and 1650.
12:09
SPEAKER_00: The total number of food riots in England rose from 12 between 1600 and 1620 to 37
12:12
SPEAKER_00: between 1621 and 1631,
12:12
SPEAKER_00: with 14 more in 1647 to 1649.
12:13
SPEAKER_00: In France, finally, popular revolts peaked both absolutely and relatively in the mid-17th century.
12:31
SPEAKER_00: Now this is also happening right around the end of the Thirty Years' War,
12:37
SPEAKER_00: which was started in 1618 and ended in 1648.
12:41
SPEAKER_00: It was a war between Protestants and Catholics, mostly in Germany, but it affected all of Europe.
12:51
SPEAKER_00: In Germany alone, nearly 40% of the population was dead.
12:56
SPEAKER_00: Some cities lost close to 90%.
13:00
SPEAKER_00: We've also talked about the English Civil War and the French Wars of Religion that
13:05
SPEAKER_00: happened around this time as well.
13:08
SPEAKER_00: In Europe, war never ended.
13:12
SPEAKER_00: and it wouldn't for a very long time.
13:16
SPEAKER_00: And it wasn't just in Europe where this was happening.
13:18
SPEAKER_00: In Africa, there were constant conquests and imperial wars.
13:21
SPEAKER_00: The Mali controlled much of the Western Africa until it fractured in the middle of the 1600s.
13:28
SPEAKER_00: At this point, another empire was beginning to form, the Dahomey.
13:33
SPEAKER_00: This kingdom was founded in 1600 by three brothers as a unified kingdom of the Fan people.
13:39
SPEAKER_00: The third king,
13:40
SPEAKER_00: Hugabaja,
13:41
SPEAKER_00: was pivotal in creating the foundation of the kingdom during his reign,
13:45
SPEAKER_00: starting from 1645.
13:47
SPEAKER_00: He built the capital and twelve palaces that recorded the history of the kingdom.
13:52
SPEAKER_00: Under his reign, Dahomey spread out from the capital, Obomi, and raided towns and enslaved prisoners.
13:58
SPEAKER_00: These prisoners were sold for muskets to the Europeans,
14:01
SPEAKER_00: and these muskets were then used for further conquest and enslavement.
14:06
SPEAKER_00: It is hard to know whether the Africans knew the ultimate destination of these slaves,
14:10
SPEAKER_00: but they were no stranger to the practice.
14:13
SPEAKER_00: They would sacrifice them to the gods in a yearly military festival.
14:17
SPEAKER_00: However, they would not work them in bondage.
14:20
SPEAKER_00: In America,
14:21
SPEAKER_00: before any colonists arrived,
14:23
SPEAKER_00: Indian warfare was just as prevalent,
14:26
SPEAKER_00: though battle was mostly pretty different.
14:30
SPEAKER_00: A major aspect of Indian warfare was the capturing of men,
14:33
SPEAKER_00: women,
14:33
SPEAKER_00: and children,
14:34
SPEAKER_00: rather than killing them.
14:36
SPEAKER_00: The captures often occurred during mourning wars,
14:39
SPEAKER_00: that is,
14:39
SPEAKER_00: mourning a death,
14:41
SPEAKER_00: in which a tribe would attack another tribe that killed one of theirs and use
14:45
SPEAKER_00: captives to replace them.
14:47
SPEAKER_00: They would also enact these wars to replace those that had died early or unnaturally.
14:53
SPEAKER_00: Bernard Balin, in his book The Barbarous Years, lays out this way of war.
14:58
SPEAKER_00: Quote,
14:59
SPEAKER_00: In such a world, reciprocity was the key to stability, to happiness, and in the end, to survival.
15:05
SPEAKER_00: Injuries had to be requited, insults repaid, losses recovered.
15:10
SPEAKER_00: Raids were launched,
15:11
SPEAKER_00: wars were fought over the failure of reciprocal trade,
15:15
SPEAKER_00: and to capture prisoners who might replace deaths or abductions incurred in
15:19
SPEAKER_00: previous conflicts,
15:21
SPEAKER_00: and to restore lost dignity and pride.
15:24
SPEAKER_00: Body parts,
15:25
SPEAKER_00: severed heads or hands,
15:27
SPEAKER_00: of warriors who had fought improperly might be offered to victims' families to
15:31
SPEAKER_00: maintain the stability of tribal relations.
15:36
SPEAKER_00: Captured women and children would be brought back and adopted by the slain's families.
15:41
SPEAKER_00: Trophies, captured warriors' hands, heads, and feet were also brought back.
15:45
SPEAKER_00: If prisoners were chosen to live, they were enslaved.
15:49
SPEAKER_00: If not, prisoners were tortured by women and children.
15:52
SPEAKER_00: They would be burned alive and disemboweled.
15:55
SPEAKER_00: Their captors would then drink their blood.
15:58
SPEAKER_00: Often these prisoners would stay defiant to the end to prove their mettle.
16:02
SPEAKER_00: Some of this was recounted by Europeans that were in these battles as well.
16:07
SPEAKER_00: In one recounting by Domini Megapolensis,
16:11
SPEAKER_00: Bernard Bailyn writes,
16:12
SPEAKER_00: quote,
16:13
SPEAKER_00: painting their faces,
16:14
SPEAKER_00: quote,
16:15
SPEAKER_00: this is quoting Megapolensis,
16:17
SPEAKER_00: red,
16:17
SPEAKER_00: blue,
16:18
SPEAKER_00: etc.,
16:18
SPEAKER_00: and then they look like the devil himself,
16:20
SPEAKER_00: end quote.
16:21
SPEAKER_00: They bite off the fingernails of the captives,
16:23
SPEAKER_00: cut off their limbs,
16:24
SPEAKER_00: and force them to sing and dance,
16:26
SPEAKER_00: roast them,
16:26
SPEAKER_00: quote,
16:27
SPEAKER_00: dead before a slow fire for some days,
16:29
SPEAKER_00: and then eat them up.
16:31
SPEAKER_00: The common people eat the arms, buttock, and trunk, but the chiefs eat the head and heart, end quote.
16:36
SPEAKER_00: Balin continues, End quote.
16:56
SPEAKER_00: these wars often led to very few casualties despite large forces being sent by
17:00
SPEAKER_00: either side natives also fought wars to preserve their pride this would result in
17:06
SPEAKER_00: many small-scale battles not the total war that was common throughout the rest of
17:11
SPEAKER_00: the world
17:12
SPEAKER_00: Some of this is still up for debate, though.
17:13
SPEAKER_00: This has often been used as shorthand for a quote-unquote nation and non-nation
17:20
SPEAKER_00: distinction in warfare,
17:22
SPEAKER_00: where nation or civilized warfare is far more organized and deadly with large goals
17:27
SPEAKER_00: like conquests,
17:28
SPEAKER_00: whereas non-nation or primitive warfare use guerrilla tactics with very localized
17:34
SPEAKER_00: goals like revenge.
17:36
SPEAKER_00: There were complex relationships and mutual hatred from many tribes.
17:41
SPEAKER_00: For instance,
17:41
SPEAKER_00: the Mohawk called themselves the People of the Flint,
17:44
SPEAKER_00: and in Narragansett,
17:45
SPEAKER_00: the same name meant man-eaters,
17:47
SPEAKER_00: and to the Unami,
17:49
SPEAKER_00: cannibal monsters.
17:50
SPEAKER_00: During the 15th and 16th century, palisades became far more common in villages.
17:55
SPEAKER_00: Along with these defenses,
17:56
SPEAKER_00: buffer zones between tribes used for hunting but not living were growing throughout
18:01
SPEAKER_00: the Chesapeake region,
18:02
SPEAKER_00: reaching as far as Pennsylvania.
18:04
SPEAKER_00: One of the reasons for this is the increase in warfare and siege.
18:10
SPEAKER_00: And if we look at individual cultures, this can paint a very detailed and very different story.
18:15
SPEAKER_00: James D.
18:16
SPEAKER_00: Rice lays out the poet and warfare in his article in William and Mary Quarterly,
18:20
SPEAKER_00: War and Politics,
18:21
SPEAKER_00: Poet and Expansionism,
18:23
SPEAKER_00: and the Problem of Native American Warfare.
18:26
SPEAKER_00: The Powhatan were not merely small-scale guerrilla warriors.
18:29
SPEAKER_00: They used siege, frontal assaults, and other tactics to inflict major damage to their enemies.
18:36
SPEAKER_00: These wars would happen on the behest of the chief, not as a collective act.
18:40
SPEAKER_00: For Wahoon Sunukak,
18:42
SPEAKER_00: these tactics were utilized to expand his borders by absorbing,
18:45
SPEAKER_00: conquering,
18:46
SPEAKER_00: or colonizing his neighbors.
18:49
SPEAKER_00: He would even annihilate the most insubordinate of his tribes.
18:53
SPEAKER_00: For instance, in 1596 or 97, he conquered the Kikotans.
18:59
SPEAKER_00: The chief was killed and the territory was repopulated with loyalists.
19:04
SPEAKER_00: By 1608,
19:05
SPEAKER_00: as the most powerful leader in the Chesapeake,
19:07
SPEAKER_00: he had grown his inherited six subordinate nations into 30,
19:10
SPEAKER_00: which was named Tsenakamaka.
19:13
SPEAKER_00: These nations were semi-independent, but were forced to abide in war, diplomacy, and trade.
19:20
SPEAKER_00: The early skirmishes and ambushes against the colonists at Jamestown were the same
19:24
SPEAKER_00: that the Poetan used against the surrounding natives.
19:27
SPEAKER_00: Despite what the English thought,
19:29
SPEAKER_00: these attacks were well-coordinated and the warriors had strict orders and formations.
19:35
SPEAKER_00: This was seen directly by John Smith, and Rice lays out some of his observations.
19:41
SPEAKER_00: As a quick note, Powhatan, referenced in this quote, is Wahoon Sunakak.
19:47
SPEAKER_00: Powhatan often refers to both the native tribe as well as the leader.
19:53
SPEAKER_00: Quote, After Powhatan's brother, Opokan Kano, captured Smith in December 1607, for example...
20:01
SPEAKER_00: he marched the englishmen northward into the territories of several tributary
20:05
SPEAKER_00: wherewances within tsenakamaka at each stage they were greeted by warriors in
20:11
SPEAKER_00: formation well guarded as smith recalled with twenty bowmen flank and rear and each
20:15
SPEAKER_00: flank before him a sword and a piece and after him the like
20:20
SPEAKER_00: At the end of the tour, too, Smith's captors approached Powhatan's capital of Huercumaco, in formation.
20:27
SPEAKER_00: Bowman marched on either side of the Englishmen,
20:30
SPEAKER_00: followed by a long single file at the rear,
20:32
SPEAKER_00: remaining in formation even while weaving along wooded paths.
20:37
SPEAKER_00: A quote-unquote sergeant flanked the main column on either side,
20:40
SPEAKER_00: each moving up and down the ranks in synchronization with the other to maintain the formation.
20:45
SPEAKER_00: End quote.
20:46
SPEAKER_00: Beyond ambushes, sieges would be used to wear down poet and enemies, including the English.
20:52
SPEAKER_00: These occurred at two new settlements at Nansimond and Upriver from Jamestown.
20:56
SPEAKER_00: During these sieges,
20:57
SPEAKER_00: they would pick off anyone who attempted to smuggle in food or supplies,
21:00
SPEAKER_00: and also patrols.
21:02
SPEAKER_00: In both of these cases, the English gave up and returned to Jamestown.
21:06
SPEAKER_00: The siege of Jamestown itself was a large factor in creating the conditions of the
21:11
SPEAKER_00: starving time of 1609 and 10.
21:14
SPEAKER_00: Most of these armies were small.
21:17
SPEAKER_00: The largest were about 200 to 300 soldiers, with about 100 being most common.
21:22
SPEAKER_00: This led to the scale of battle being far smaller, but just as deadly.
21:26
SPEAKER_00: Many small attacks on a single target from well-protected positions was a very effective tactic.
21:32
SPEAKER_00: This did not mean that the Poetan did not take risks,
21:35
SPEAKER_00: and they would often use surprise to get the jump on their enemies.
21:39
SPEAKER_00: And this was seen firsthand by the English themselves during the Second
21:44
SPEAKER_00: Anglo-Poetan War,
21:46
SPEAKER_00: which we talked about in episode 3.
21:49
SPEAKER_00: Many of these surprise attacks were extremely successful,
21:52
SPEAKER_00: many times leading to upwards of half the male population of the opposing tribe
21:57
SPEAKER_00: being killed.
21:58
SPEAKER_00: Wahoon Sunukuk used war for purposes of state, not merely mourning wars that were assumed.
22:05
SPEAKER_00: During the 15th and 16th centuries,
22:08
SPEAKER_00: the Little Ice Age had driven many people to more suitable growing climates and
22:12
SPEAKER_00: towards the creation of chiefdoms to protect their trade and people from outside threats.
22:18
SPEAKER_00: Wahoon Sunukok was merely following this tradition to its end.
22:22
SPEAKER_00: He wanted a secure empire,
22:24
SPEAKER_00: protected from the Monacans and Manahoeks from the west,
22:27
SPEAKER_00: and the Massawomeks and Susquehannock to the north.
22:31
SPEAKER_00: He did so with both war and diplomacy.
22:35
SPEAKER_00: The English were just one of those to fall to the same fate in the eyes of the chief.
22:40
SPEAKER_00: When John Smith,
22:40
SPEAKER_00: the newest Werowance,
22:42
SPEAKER_00: quote-unquote,
22:43
SPEAKER_00: was disloyal,
22:44
SPEAKER_00: Wahoon Sunukok was not afraid to put his foot down.
22:48
SPEAKER_00: But he had other worries.
22:50
SPEAKER_00: He had to deal with a prophecy claiming a new Chesapeake Bay nation would take down his empire.
22:56
SPEAKER_00: To alleviate this, he attacked the nearby Chesapeake tribe and gave them the Kikatan treatment.
23:02
SPEAKER_00: Beyond just territory,
23:03
SPEAKER_00: he used war to bolster the population of his empire,
23:07
SPEAKER_00: mainly through women and children.
23:09
SPEAKER_00: The women raised crops, gathered plants, and made clothing and ceramics.
23:13
SPEAKER_00: The boys were raised to be warriors,
23:15
SPEAKER_00: fishers,
23:15
SPEAKER_00: and hunters,
23:16
SPEAKER_00: and the girls would often be used to bolster relationships.
23:20
SPEAKER_00: These relationships were vital to integrate newly captured kin groups into the empire.
23:25
SPEAKER_00: All of this was necessary to ensure their interests aligned with the poetan
23:28
SPEAKER_00: interests to prevent any desertions to any other nearby tribes.
23:33
SPEAKER_00: And it wasn't just the Powhatan that did this.
23:36
SPEAKER_00: After first contact with the Europeans,
23:38
SPEAKER_00: many native tribes with access to new weapons would use that to their advantage.
23:42
SPEAKER_00: They would use them against lesser armed enemies and neighbors to replenish their own populations.
23:49
SPEAKER_00: Access to this trade was often the impetus for displacing nearby tribes,
23:54
SPEAKER_00: like the Susquehannock likely did in the 16th century.
23:59
SPEAKER_00: To the north, the Iroquois would do this to perfection, for better or for worse.
24:06
SPEAKER_00: The popularity of furs that were flooding the market in France led to tribes
24:12
SPEAKER_00: attempting to monopolize the hunts and become the middlemen to exploit the trade
24:16
SPEAKER_00: for themselves.
24:18
SPEAKER_00: For the Iroquois, they took this to the farthest extreme.
24:22
SPEAKER_00: In order to ensure their control of the trade,
24:24
SPEAKER_00: the Iroquois decided to clear the region of any competition,
24:28
SPEAKER_00: and in 1648 they began this process.
24:31
SPEAKER_00: Over the next few years,
24:32
SPEAKER_00: they destroyed,
24:33
SPEAKER_00: enslaved,
24:34
SPEAKER_00: and incorporated all of the surrounding tribes they could,
24:38
SPEAKER_00: starting with the Huron.
24:40
SPEAKER_00: The French were able to observe this genocidal wave first-hand.
24:45
SPEAKER_00: And it didn't stop with the Huron.
24:47
SPEAKER_00: Daniel K.
24:48
SPEAKER_00: Richter,
24:49
SPEAKER_00: in his book,
24:50
SPEAKER_00: Before the Revolution,
24:52
SPEAKER_00: America's Ancient Pasts,
24:54
SPEAKER_00: he lays out some of the wars that happened after the Huron,
24:58
SPEAKER_00: starting with the Wendats.
25:00
SPEAKER_00: Quote,
25:04
SPEAKER_00: Hundreds,
25:05
SPEAKER_00: perhaps thousands of others,
25:07
SPEAKER_00: were taken captive and incorporated,
25:09
SPEAKER_00: with varying success,
25:10
SPEAKER_00: into lineages of the five Haudenosaunee nations as slaves and adoptees.
25:16
SPEAKER_00: Others scattered to new homes in the west of the continent or to the village of Lorette,
25:21
SPEAKER_00: near Quebec,
25:22
SPEAKER_00: where their descendants live today.
25:25
SPEAKER_00: With the Wendats defeated,
25:26
SPEAKER_00: war parties from the five nations turned their guns on other neighbors,
25:30
SPEAKER_00: near and far.
25:32
SPEAKER_00: Great Lakes agricultural nations that spoke Iroquoian languages and shared broad
25:36
SPEAKER_00: cultural patterns with the Haudenosaunee were particular targets because their
25:40
SPEAKER_00: captives were apt to be most easily assimilated.
25:44
SPEAKER_00: The people known as the Petoons or the Tobacco Nation fell by 1650.
25:48
SPEAKER_00: The nation called the Neutrals because they traditionally allied with neither the
25:52
SPEAKER_00: Wendats or the Haudenosaunee succumbed in 1651.
25:57
SPEAKER_00: and their neighbors the Eries dispersed in 1657.
26:01
SPEAKER_00: In each case,
26:02
SPEAKER_00: Iroquois war parties systematically attacked successive villages and forced those
26:07
SPEAKER_00: they captured to carry plundered furs and trade goods with them to their new homes.
26:12
SPEAKER_00: End quote.
26:13
SPEAKER_00: Those that were not incorporated or killed fled.
26:16
SPEAKER_00: Some went south,
26:17
SPEAKER_00: like many of the Erie tribes,
26:19
SPEAKER_00: and were renamed the Westo,
26:21
SPEAKER_00: which we've encountered before.
26:23
SPEAKER_00: Some fled towards their Algonquian kin,
26:25
SPEAKER_00: like the Ottawa's,
26:26
SPEAKER_00: Potawatomi's,
26:27
SPEAKER_00: and Miami's,
26:28
SPEAKER_00: and renamed to the Anishinaabe.
26:31
SPEAKER_00: Others fled west, becoming known as the Wayandans.
26:35
SPEAKER_00: The latter two continued some trade, but they could not keep up with the Iroquois.
26:39
SPEAKER_00: The goal was to wipe out the opposing cultures and integrate them into the Haudenosaunee.
26:44
SPEAKER_00: By 1660, it is likely that the majority of the Five Nations population was war captives.
26:51
SPEAKER_00: The population was still less than half of pre-contact,
26:54
SPEAKER_00: though,
26:55
SPEAKER_00: so the territories that were previously occupied by some of these tribes lay empty.
27:00
SPEAKER_00: Breaking out of the confines of eastern North America,
27:03
SPEAKER_00: we can see some other conflicts that shape the world as well,
27:09
SPEAKER_00: starting with Brazil,
27:11
SPEAKER_00: where Princess Aquiltaine was enslaved along with her sons Gangazumba and Gangazona.
27:20
SPEAKER_00: Now Ganga Zumba escaped shortly after arriving with his family in Brazil and
27:25
SPEAKER_00: claimed several surrounding villages for them.
27:28
SPEAKER_00: He became king and after several victories against the Portuguese,
27:33
SPEAKER_00: he ended up ruling about 30,000 people.
27:36
SPEAKER_00: He brought the traditions of the Congo and merged them with Catholicism.
27:40
SPEAKER_00: Now,
27:40
SPEAKER_00: this kingdom didn't last forever,
27:42
SPEAKER_00: but while it did,
27:43
SPEAKER_00: it was heralded throughout the colonies and would inspire many other slave
27:47
SPEAKER_00: rebellions in the New World.
27:49
SPEAKER_00: Heading north into Spanish territory in the southwest of the United States, we reach the Pueblo people.
27:57
SPEAKER_00: Pueblo is the Spanish word for town or village and described the people that lived
28:02
SPEAKER_00: in an area around the Rio Grande in New Mexico and Arizona.
28:06
SPEAKER_00: These people were diverse in their language and customs,
28:09
SPEAKER_00: but they were sedentary and lived in towns that could be seen as normal by the Europeans.
28:14
SPEAKER_00: The nations that lived here were the Zuni, the Tenoan, the Carizans, and the Acoma.
28:20
SPEAKER_00: Surrounding these towns were many nomadic people, the Apache, Navajo, and Yutei.
28:26
SPEAKER_00: Many of these towns were able to grow corn due to seasonal rain,
28:29
SPEAKER_00: but some of the terrain was harsh,
28:32
SPEAKER_00: both hot and cold.
28:34
SPEAKER_00: The tribes were mostly organized in matrilineal clans,
28:37
SPEAKER_00: and the towns were made up of houses that were built for extended families.
28:42
SPEAKER_00: This spare settlement of the region led to a more robust defense against the
28:46
SPEAKER_00: dangerous diseases of the Europeans,
28:50
SPEAKER_00: though the population was still cut in half in 50 years after contact.
28:55
SPEAKER_00: the increase of activity by franciscan friars also hurt the relations with the
28:59
SPEAKER_00: spanish dramatically as they became more and more ruthless in their treatment of
29:03
SPEAKER_00: the natives in sixteen seventy five this brutality led to the arrest of forty-seven
29:09
SPEAKER_00: medicine-men many were hanged and the rest were sold into slavery
29:14
SPEAKER_00: In 1680,
29:15
SPEAKER_00: this culminated in the Pueblo Revolt,
29:17
SPEAKER_00: in which a religious leader named Pope united 6,000 Pueblo Indians,
29:23
SPEAKER_00: as well as many Apache,
29:25
SPEAKER_00: to attack the Spanish.
29:27
SPEAKER_00: Despite severe trouble communicating throughout the region,
29:29
SPEAKER_00: 500 Indians attacked the mission of Santa Fe,
29:33
SPEAKER_00: killing 380 settlers and 21 missionaries.
29:37
SPEAKER_00: In the end, the Pueblo were victorious, though some remained loyal to the Spanish and fled with them.
29:43
SPEAKER_00: Retaliation from the Spanish would follow a year later,
29:46
SPEAKER_00: and the partnership with the Apache ended shortly thereafter as well.
29:50
SPEAKER_00: The Pueblo alliance would continue to fracture over the next decade,
29:54
SPEAKER_00: and by 1691,
29:55
SPEAKER_00: most of the region was again under Spanish rule.
29:58
SPEAKER_00: This led to a massive consolidation of towns,
30:00
SPEAKER_00: often bringing multiple different peoples together,
30:03
SPEAKER_00: or they were absorbed by larger ones.
30:06
SPEAKER_00: Eventually,
30:06
SPEAKER_00: peace was brokered between the pueblos and the Spanish,
30:09
SPEAKER_00: allowing for more freedom than before,
30:11
SPEAKER_00: as they were not forced by the friars to work or learn trades.
30:16
SPEAKER_00: Moving back over to Virginia,
30:19
SPEAKER_00: after the end of the Second Anglo-Poetan War,
30:23
SPEAKER_00: trade resumed between the Poetan and the various European colonial powers,
30:27
SPEAKER_00: mainly for beaver pelts.
30:30
SPEAKER_00: However,
30:30
SPEAKER_00: as colonial expansion only grew in the following decades,
30:33
SPEAKER_00: especially with the arrival of the English in Massachusetts,
30:38
SPEAKER_00: tensions rose to a boiling point again.
30:40
SPEAKER_00: On April 18,
30:41
SPEAKER_00: 1644,
30:42
SPEAKER_00: the Powhatan,
30:44
SPEAKER_00: sent by an age-wearied Opechancanough,
30:47
SPEAKER_00: killed over 400 settlers in Virginia,
30:49
SPEAKER_00: and the war was underway.
30:51
SPEAKER_00: This attack followed many of the same tactics as the previous one.
30:56
SPEAKER_00: They pretended to be traitors, got into their homes, and slaughtered them.
31:01
SPEAKER_00: It is unknown why this attack was called.
31:04
SPEAKER_00: There is some speculation that some weakness had been shown due to the beginning of
31:08
SPEAKER_00: the English Civil War,
31:09
SPEAKER_00: or the chief was merely trying to correct the bad behavior of the settlers,
31:14
SPEAKER_00: or it was merely for the glory of the fight.
31:17
SPEAKER_00: Regardless of the intentions, the response by the English was quick and brutal.
31:22
SPEAKER_00: Divide and conquer tactics were utilized via both ground and amphibious assaults on poets and towns.
31:28
SPEAKER_00: Not much is known about these attacks,
31:30
SPEAKER_00: but it is likely that these same tactics that were used in the Pequot War and
31:33
SPEAKER_00: Keefe's War were used here.
31:36
SPEAKER_00: Houses and crops were likely burned,
31:38
SPEAKER_00: the men were killed,
31:39
SPEAKER_00: and the women and children were enslaved and sent to the Caribbean.
31:42
SPEAKER_00: In short, total war.
31:45
SPEAKER_00: Many towns and tribes were decimated to such a degree that they decided to flee the
31:49
SPEAKER_00: region entirely,
31:51
SPEAKER_00: including one of the core tribes of Senekomiko,
31:54
SPEAKER_00: the Wyanokes.
31:55
SPEAKER_00: Throughout 1645 and 1646, the English continuously raided the villages of Senekomiko.
32:01
SPEAKER_00: By the end, the poet and empire and alliances were completely shattered.
32:04
SPEAKER_00: Opechancanough's town itself was stormed by William Barclay,
32:08
SPEAKER_00: and he was imprisoned and killed shortly thereafter,
32:11
SPEAKER_00: perhaps at over 100 years old.
32:14
SPEAKER_00: The new chief, Nekotuance, tried to reconstruct the broken empire to no avail.
32:19
SPEAKER_00: In October 1646, the English signed a treaty with him to end the war.
32:24
SPEAKER_00: This treaty set a clear boundary between English and Indian lands and did not allow
32:30
SPEAKER_00: free passage between them.
32:32
SPEAKER_00: Not all of the conflict in Virginia happened between the natives and the English.
32:36
SPEAKER_00: Now William Barclay was removed as governor during the English Civil War,
32:42
SPEAKER_00: but in 1660 he returned after the restoration of King Charles II.
32:48
SPEAKER_00: When he came back,
32:48
SPEAKER_00: he had the goal of diversifying the economy,
32:51
SPEAKER_00: but refused to look to the Puritans to the north for any guidance.
32:56
SPEAKER_00: It was during this time that England was enacting more of the Navigation Acts in an
33:00
SPEAKER_00: attempt to bolster the economy of the mother country.
33:03
SPEAKER_00: As stated,
33:04
SPEAKER_00: these acts banned trading tobacco with the Dutch,
33:06
SPEAKER_00: a lucrative enterprise,
33:08
SPEAKER_00: and forced it to go through England first.
33:11
SPEAKER_00: However, the crown was not interested in funding this transition away from tobacco.
33:15
SPEAKER_00: Despite this,
33:16
SPEAKER_00: Berkeley was able to receive royal instruction to build a city on each river with
33:20
SPEAKER_00: houses constructed within them.
33:22
SPEAKER_00: The people who would be living there were instructed to produce flax, hemp, and silk.
33:26
SPEAKER_00: Furthermore, they were banned from exporting raw materials such as hides and wool.
33:31
SPEAKER_00: Tan houses and looms were constructed at public expense.
33:35
SPEAKER_00: This expense was high and there was not enough skilled workers to man these manufacturers.
33:41
SPEAKER_00: Despite begging the king for support, none came.
33:44
SPEAKER_00: Barclay persevered though and tried to limit tobacco production to promote diversification.
33:49
SPEAKER_00: We mentioned in a previous episode that he worked alongside Maryland and Carolina
33:54
SPEAKER_00: to ban tobacco planting for a year.
33:56
SPEAKER_00: Despite these attempts, tobacco remained king and diversification became less and less likely.
34:02
SPEAKER_00: Along with this, the Indian relations hung in a very tenuous balance.
34:06
SPEAKER_00: Many farmers,
34:07
SPEAKER_00: such as John Washington,
34:09
SPEAKER_00: wanted to remove the Indians to expand his territory,
34:12
SPEAKER_00: while many others saw them as important to the colonies,
34:14
SPEAKER_00: though many saw them useful only as slaves.
34:18
SPEAKER_00: Barclay steered clear of the direct hatred of John Mason,
34:21
SPEAKER_00: the architect of the Pequot War,
34:23
SPEAKER_00: but he did hire Washington and Isaac Allerton Jr.
34:27
SPEAKER_00: to try to temper the mood by sending them to the Susquehannock.
34:33
SPEAKER_00: Washington was originally meant to just meet with the Susquehannock.
34:36
SPEAKER_00: However, he opted to form an expedition force.
34:40
SPEAKER_00: Soldiers from Virginia and,
34:41
SPEAKER_00: with the approval of Charles Calvert,
34:43
SPEAKER_00: Maryland were used to lay siege on the Susquehannock.
34:47
SPEAKER_00: The two troops marched towards the Susquehannock Fort on mid-September 26, 1675.
34:53
SPEAKER_00: Before the Virginians could reach it,
34:54
SPEAKER_00: however,
34:54
SPEAKER_00: the Maryland troop tried to meet with the leader of the fort.
34:58
SPEAKER_00: finding him dead.
34:59
SPEAKER_00: The ensuing meeting went very poorly.
35:01
SPEAKER_00: The next day,
35:02
SPEAKER_00: the talks ended shortly after they started when the English seized and executed the emissaries.
35:07
SPEAKER_00: The siege was on.
35:09
SPEAKER_00: It lasted for over a month with very little success from the English.
35:12
SPEAKER_00: One night in early November, the Susquehannock were able to sneak out of the fort and escape unscathed.
35:19
SPEAKER_00: This was a massive blow to the English psyche as it seemed to have happened by magic.
35:23
SPEAKER_00: The Susquehannock escaped and a few months later exacted revenge by killing a few
35:27
SPEAKER_00: dozen English and raided their farms.
35:30
SPEAKER_00: Barclay hired Sir Henry Chichely to chase down the Susquehannock and put an end to them,
35:35
SPEAKER_00: though he quickly reversed this decision.
35:37
SPEAKER_00: Murmurings of another war in New England brought with it a heightened anxiety of an
35:43
SPEAKER_00: Indian coalition forming to attack the colony.
35:47
SPEAKER_00: Barclay seized all of the ammunition he could from the neighboring natives just to
35:50
SPEAKER_00: be sure that wouldn't happen.
35:52
SPEAKER_00: When these small raids were conducted in the frontier of Virginia,
35:56
SPEAKER_00: retaliation was requested,
35:58
SPEAKER_00: namely by Nathaniel Bacon.
36:00
SPEAKER_00: Barclay and the assembly refused to authorize an attack,
36:04
SPEAKER_00: so Bacon would have to take matters into his own hands.
36:08
SPEAKER_00: Moving north,
36:09
SPEAKER_00: we reach New Netherland,
36:11
SPEAKER_00: and we'll have to go back in time a little bit to actually have New Netherland be
36:14
SPEAKER_00: the colony here,
36:15
SPEAKER_00: not New York.
36:17
SPEAKER_00: In May 1658,
36:17
SPEAKER_00: New Netherland was still reeling from the aftermath of Keefe's War and the
36:22
SPEAKER_00: retaliatory Peach War.
36:25
SPEAKER_00: These feelings of anxiety were not unwarranted.
36:28
SPEAKER_00: That month, in the village of Esopus, a drunken Indian murdered a Dutch farmer and burned down his house.
36:35
SPEAKER_00: The community was incensed and begged Peter Stuyvesant to retaliate.
36:39
SPEAKER_00: The governor refused,
36:40
SPEAKER_00: though,
36:41
SPEAKER_00: and tried to reconcile the two people's differences before the violence got out of hand.
36:45
SPEAKER_00: He asked for payment for the losses,
36:47
SPEAKER_00: but the Indians blamed the Dutch alcohol trade for causing harm to the tribe.
36:51
SPEAKER_00: Drunkenness brought with it violent fervor.
36:54
SPEAKER_00: To this accusation, Stuyvesant made a suggestion.
36:57
SPEAKER_00: He'll fight any Indian that is willing to duel him.
37:00
SPEAKER_00: This offer was not taken up,
37:02
SPEAKER_00: though,
37:02
SPEAKER_00: and the two backed away,
37:04
SPEAKER_00: though Stuyvesant requested to buy the land surrounding the village to no avail.
37:09
SPEAKER_00: The next year, a ragtag group of vigilantes shot at a group of drunk Indian farmers.
37:14
SPEAKER_00: One was killed, another captured, and the rest were beaten.
37:17
SPEAKER_00: The next day, a group of 13 settlers was ambushed and either killed or captured.
37:22
SPEAKER_00: The village was then surrounded by a group of 500 Indians who ransacked the
37:26
SPEAKER_00: surrounding fields,
37:27
SPEAKER_00: killed the livestock,
37:29
SPEAKER_00: and besieged the village.
37:31
SPEAKER_00: The villagers were saved from this torment by 150 Dutchmen,
37:34
SPEAKER_00: Englishmen,
37:35
SPEAKER_00: and Long Island Indians led by Stuyvesant.
37:38
SPEAKER_00: A settlement was reached, and the First Aesopus War was over.
37:42
SPEAKER_00: Stuyvesant then approached the Dutch West India Company for support to prevent
37:45
SPEAKER_00: further outbreaks like this,
37:47
SPEAKER_00: but was given advice for waging war and token armaments.
37:53
SPEAKER_00: to prepare for a war aesopus became a war camp and raiding parters found captured
37:58
SPEAKER_00: and killed several indians those captured were sent to curaoa the surrounding
38:03
SPEAKER_00: tribes were willing to negotiate a sale at this point in return for their enslaved
38:07
SPEAKER_00: people this did not happen
38:10
SPEAKER_00: Two years later, in June of 1663, Aesopus was attacked again.
38:15
SPEAKER_00: A group of natives pretending to be traders entered the houses,
38:18
SPEAKER_00: killed the men,
38:19
SPEAKER_00: captured the women and children,
38:21
SPEAKER_00: and burned the houses to the ground.
38:23
SPEAKER_00: In the end, around 20 were dead and 45 were captured.
38:27
SPEAKER_00: In his book, The Barber Seers, Bernard Bailyn describes this event.
38:33
SPEAKER_00: Quote,
38:52
SPEAKER_00: Bailey continues,
38:53
SPEAKER_00: one immolated woman lay,
38:54
SPEAKER_00: quote,
38:55
SPEAKER_00: with her child at her side as if she were just delivered,
38:58
SPEAKER_00: and one corpse with her fruit still in her womb,
39:01
SPEAKER_00: end quote.
39:02
SPEAKER_00: The Dutch were ready for revenge, and they would take it.
39:05
SPEAKER_00: A similar group as the First War was gathered by Stuyvesant, and they marched from Esopus.
39:10
SPEAKER_00: They weren't able to find any Esopus Indians to kill,
39:13
SPEAKER_00: so they settled with burning their crops and fortifications.
39:17
SPEAKER_00: After failed negotiations for the return of those captured,
39:19
SPEAKER_00: a full-scale battle was fought near an Indian fort.
39:23
SPEAKER_00: Over 30 Indians were dead and 33 Dutch were freed.
39:27
SPEAKER_00: The fort was razed and goods were taken.
39:30
SPEAKER_00: A month later, another army was sent to find the remaining captives.
39:33
SPEAKER_00: Eventually, a captive exchange was made.
39:36
SPEAKER_00: Not all of the Dutch captives were returned in the end.
39:40
SPEAKER_00: And the Second War was over.
39:42
SPEAKER_00: Moving north once again, and we reach New England.
39:45
SPEAKER_00: After the Pequot War, New England did not have many problems with the natives.
39:51
SPEAKER_00: Many of the problems began to arise internally.
39:55
SPEAKER_00: And I've talked about the Antimonian Controversy,
39:58
SPEAKER_00: in which the likes of Anne Hutchinson,
39:59
SPEAKER_00: John Wheelwright,
40:00
SPEAKER_00: and Henry Vane took over the government and then were banished from Massachusetts.
40:07
SPEAKER_00: However,
40:08
SPEAKER_00: when later generations of settlers moved to Massachusetts,
40:11
SPEAKER_00: the church began to ease the requirements to join the church and boost membership.
40:16
SPEAKER_00: This was due to the decrease in religious fervor that many of the newcomers felt,
40:21
SPEAKER_00: mostly because they were staying in England,
40:24
SPEAKER_00: those that were the most fervent to fight in the English Civil War or work for the
40:29
SPEAKER_00: new government.
40:31
SPEAKER_00: Many of them did not travel across an ocean purely for the religious beliefs like those before them had.
40:37
SPEAKER_00: So in 1662,
40:39
SPEAKER_00: the halfway covenant was passed in order to allow for more people to attend church
40:45
SPEAKER_00: and then vote.
40:46
SPEAKER_00: The colony of Plymouth did not do the same,
40:49
SPEAKER_00: though their rules for church membership were not as strict to begin with.
40:54
SPEAKER_00: There was still a great hatred of some other religions,
40:58
SPEAKER_00: for instance the Quakers,
41:00
SPEAKER_00: who had begun to find refuge in Rhode Island after making their way into Massachusetts.
41:07
SPEAKER_00: However, the relations with the natives did start to change over time.
41:12
SPEAKER_00: By 1650, there were roughly 20,000 to 30,000 English settlers in New England.
41:17
SPEAKER_00: This likely dwarfed the number of natives in the region due to the rampant disease
41:22
SPEAKER_00: that had decimated the population by this point.
41:25
SPEAKER_00: The ever-expanding population led to more need for land to house and feed everyone.
41:31
SPEAKER_00: The constant need for more land was common in both Massachusetts and Plymouth.
41:36
SPEAKER_00: This is possibly due to the lack of land ownership in Europe for these people,
41:41
SPEAKER_00: but it was ever-present regardless.
41:43
SPEAKER_00: This land grabbing was often done fraudulently and through force rather than by agreement,
41:49
SPEAKER_00: though sometimes it was purchased from the sachem of the territory.
41:52
SPEAKER_00: One of these sachems was Massazoet.
41:56
SPEAKER_00: He had a strained but cordial relationship with the English,
41:59
SPEAKER_00: though it seemed that his relationship was more positive with several of the
42:03
SPEAKER_00: pilgrims than many of those in Massachusetts.
42:05
SPEAKER_00: During this period, there was relative peace between the English and natives.
42:09
SPEAKER_00: However, that continuous growth I talked about
42:12
SPEAKER_00: and the establishment of other colonies like Connecticut and New Haven strained the relationship.
42:16
SPEAKER_00: This peace was held together by Massazoit,
42:19
SPEAKER_00: and when he died in 1661,
42:22
SPEAKER_00: the cracks in the relationship began to show.
42:25
SPEAKER_00: Massazoit had two sons, Wamsuda and Metakam.
42:29
SPEAKER_00: After his death, the eldest, Wamsuda, took over as a seishim.
42:32
SPEAKER_00: As a sign of mutual citizenship and alliance,
42:36
SPEAKER_00: the two brothers took English names,
42:38
SPEAKER_00: Alexander for Wamsuda and Philip for Metakam.
42:43
SPEAKER_00: Namedicum became desatium of the Poconoket,
42:47
SPEAKER_00: the leader of the Wampanoag Confederation,
42:49
SPEAKER_00: in 1662 after his brother,
42:52
SPEAKER_00: Alexander Orwamsuta,
42:55
SPEAKER_00: died under suspicious circumstances.
42:58
SPEAKER_00: This happened while Wamsuda was summoned by Josiah Winslow.
43:02
SPEAKER_00: It is unclear whether he was poisoned or was simply not treated well for his ailments.
43:08
SPEAKER_00: Regardless, it did not look good from Philip's perspective.
43:12
SPEAKER_00: Philip had seen the English take advantage of his father and kill his brother,
43:16
SPEAKER_00: so he was not prepared to play nice.
43:18
SPEAKER_00: He was accused of working with France and the Netherlands against the English and
43:24
SPEAKER_00: later did threaten to attack Plymouth and was forced on threat of utter destruction
43:30
SPEAKER_00: to lay down his arms in the 1671 Taunton Agreement.
43:35
SPEAKER_00: This document may have stopped the immediate threat.
43:39
SPEAKER_00: But it just made Philip's choice that much more clear.
43:42
SPEAKER_00: He needed to attack the English before they were an insurmountable foe.
43:46
SPEAKER_00: And this agreement was merely an armistice, and tensions continued to rise.
43:51
SPEAKER_00: The Poconocat by this time had been relegated to Mount Hope,
43:55
SPEAKER_00: a small region near Rhode Island completely surrounded by English holdings.
44:00
SPEAKER_00: Their backs were against the wall.
44:02
SPEAKER_00: Immediately after the agreement was signed, Philip began to amass arms and plan an attack.
44:07
SPEAKER_00: He sold land and bought muskets.
44:09
SPEAKER_00: He then began to forge relationships with several smaller nations nearby.
44:14
SPEAKER_00: Many of them were quick to join his cause as they were long-standing allies,
44:18
SPEAKER_00: such as the Pocoset,
44:19
SPEAKER_00: Nipmucs,
44:20
SPEAKER_00: Uncas,
44:21
SPEAKER_00: and Mohegans.
44:23
SPEAKER_00: the Narragansett were the hardest to convince but in 1676 they joined and Philip
44:28
SPEAKER_00: was ready for war and war would come not just here but in Virginia as well the
44:35
SPEAKER_00: worry in Virginia of a servant revolt would come to fruition just as Philip began
44:43
SPEAKER_00: his campaign thus 1676 would be a turning point in the colonial history
44:49
SPEAKER_00: and the relationships between the colonies and their mother country,
44:53
SPEAKER_00: the servants and their masters,
44:57
SPEAKER_00: slaves and servants,
44:59
SPEAKER_00: the Indians and the English,
45:03
SPEAKER_00: would all be changed forever.
45:06
SPEAKER_00: This episode is not meant to be an indulgence for political pursuits or anything like that.
45:16
SPEAKER_00: Too often these conversations about history dissolve into arguments about the aggrieved.
45:24
SPEAKER_00: The oppressed natives had no choice but to fight back against the oppressive colonists.
45:30
SPEAKER_00: While there's some truth to that,
45:32
SPEAKER_00: especially as time marches forward in history,
45:37
SPEAKER_00: I feel that this idea is just as farcical,
45:42
SPEAKER_00: this idea of there's always an oppressive and an oppressed class,
45:47
SPEAKER_00: is just as farcical as thinking that natives deserved it,
45:52
SPEAKER_00: right?
45:53
SPEAKER_00: The idea that the colonists held, that this was merely a way to civilize them.
46:01
SPEAKER_00: history does not fit into simple narratives or cliches to study it is to study
46:07
SPEAKER_00: contradictions hypocrisy and serendipity great men do not solely dictate the path
46:14
SPEAKER_00: of history neither do cultural forces
46:18
SPEAKER_00: There are people that take advantage of their situations and either exploit it or change it.
46:23
SPEAKER_00: There are cultural forces that dictate when these openings arise for them to act.
46:29
SPEAKER_00: It's all in concert.
46:31
SPEAKER_00: It's not one or the other.
46:35
SPEAKER_00: It's all part of a singular whole, impossible to separate.
46:40
SPEAKER_00: It's like those science experiments in middle school where you had to decide
46:43
SPEAKER_00: whether something was heterogeneous or homogeneous,
46:48
SPEAKER_00: whether or not you could separate it.
46:49
SPEAKER_00: For instance, cake batter.
46:52
SPEAKER_00: Once it's mixed, you can't separate out the flour.
46:55
SPEAKER_00: There are moments in history that defy these narratives.
47:00
SPEAKER_00: A single microorganism,
47:01
SPEAKER_00: or well,
47:02
SPEAKER_00: a lot of them,
47:03
SPEAKER_00: but a single type of microorganism killed likely a billion people throughout history.
47:10
SPEAKER_00: In doing so, some died and some thrived in a new environment that was created.
47:17
SPEAKER_00: That is the nature of the world, of history.
47:21
SPEAKER_00: If it fit into neat little boxes, there would be no use writing more about it.
47:25
SPEAKER_00: It would have been solved by now.
47:27
SPEAKER_00: Beyond that, it is important to look at history as if it were happening in real time.
47:33
SPEAKER_00: There are no premonitions of the future that dictate people's actions.
47:37
SPEAKER_00: The people of history were dealing with far less information than we are now.
47:42
SPEAKER_00: Even with the amount of information that we are left with today,
47:45
SPEAKER_00: that we are given every single second,
47:47
SPEAKER_00: we can't do that.
47:49
SPEAKER_00: Some may have had hope that their ideas would change the world,
47:54
SPEAKER_00: but most were worried more about their survival than anything else.
47:58
SPEAKER_00: As one example of this failure to understand the future,
48:02
SPEAKER_00: there is speculation that had the poetin attacked Jamestown continuously,
48:07
SPEAKER_00: that they would have been able to drive them off.
48:09
SPEAKER_00: But why would they have done that?
48:11
SPEAKER_00: As I've stated,
48:12
SPEAKER_00: the concern of Wahoon Sonococ was the empire thriving and expanding,
48:18
SPEAKER_00: not the short,
48:20
SPEAKER_00: smelly,
48:20
SPEAKER_00: pockmarked people who are doing just fine dying on their own.
48:26
SPEAKER_00: On the flip side,
48:27
SPEAKER_00: the actions of John Mason during the Pequot War can be seen through the lens of
48:32
SPEAKER_00: ensuring safety,
48:33
SPEAKER_00: He knew,
48:34
SPEAKER_00: or at least he thought he knew,
48:36
SPEAKER_00: the dangers that natives posed and wanted to ensure that that threat was neutralized.
48:43
SPEAKER_00: We look at it today and realize how brutal and terrible it was.
48:48
SPEAKER_00: But we're not that far removed from this.
48:51
SPEAKER_00: And even today,
48:53
SPEAKER_00: atrocities like what happened during the Pequot War at Mystic Fort happen in
49:00
SPEAKER_00: so-called civilized societies.
49:03
SPEAKER_00: Beyond just that, John Mason was at war.
49:08
SPEAKER_00: We don't understand war much in America anymore,
49:12
SPEAKER_00: which explains the protests that are rampant on college campuses for wars that
49:19
SPEAKER_00: we're only tangentially a part of.
49:23
SPEAKER_00: War isn't pretty, but it is just as human as peace, if not more so.
51:22
SPEAKER_00: I pushed your lips against mine, another man's what I tasted.