Latest / Daniel and Kelly’s Extraordinary Universe / Daniel answers Listener Questions about diamond rain on Jupiter, travel near the speed of light and the tilt of Uranus.

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Daniel answers Listener Questions about diamond rain on Jupiter, travel near the speed of light and the tilt of Uranus. · Daniel and Kelly’s Extraordinary Universe

• 0:08
  Speaker 1: Is our corner of the universe weird? For the longest time,
• 0:13
  Speaker 1: we thought that Earth was everything. When people used to
• 0:17
  Speaker 1: wonder about the nature of the universe, they were mostly
• 0:21
  Speaker 1: thinking about the rules for how things worked down here.
• 0:25
  Speaker 1: Even the stars just seemed like sort of decorations in
• 0:28
  Speaker 1: the sky. Now, of course, we know that there's much
• 0:32
  Speaker 1: more out there, And our little slice of this planet
• 0:35
  Speaker 1: is the tiniest fraction of the space in the Solar System,
• 0:39
  Speaker 1: which is an infinitesimal speck of the volume of the galaxy,
• 0:43
  Speaker 1: which of course is the tiniest drop in intergalactic space.
• 0:48
  Speaker 1: And the stuff that goes on out there and the
• 0:51
  Speaker 1: rest of the universe is super crazy. It's a bonkers
• 0:55
  Speaker 1: universe out there, filled with black holes and pulsars and
• 0:58
  Speaker 1: giant jets and crazy conditions. So is our corner of
• 1:03
  Speaker 1: the universe weird? Or is it the least weird place
• 1:07
  Speaker 1: in the cosmos? Hi? I'm Daniel, I'm a particle physicist,
• 1:26
  Speaker 1: and I have the weirdest questions about our weird cosmos.
• 1:31
  Speaker 1: And welcome to the podcast Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe,
• 1:35
  Speaker 1: a production of I Heart Radio in which we dare
• 1:39
  Speaker 1: to ask the biggest questions about the biggest things in
• 1:42
  Speaker 1: the universe. We explore the tiniest little particles and ask
• 1:46
  Speaker 1: those tiny little questions about what those crazy little quantum
• 1:50
  Speaker 1: objects are doing. But mostly we join you in the
• 1:53
  Speaker 1: struggle to understand the nature of this universe that we
• 1:56
  Speaker 1: find ourselves in. But we marinate in the joy of
• 2:00
  Speaker 1: that wonder and that curiosity. We embrace it. We ask
• 2:03
  Speaker 1: those questions about the nature of the universe, and we
• 2:06
  Speaker 1: dare to demand answers. We're not always satisfied with what
• 2:09
  Speaker 1: we find, but we understand it's a process. Science is
• 2:13
  Speaker 1: not a list of answers. It's a way of figuring
• 2:15
  Speaker 1: out how the universe works. It's daring to expect that
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  Speaker 1: we can actually understand the way the universe functions, that
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  Speaker 1: we could hold in our head a model for how
• 2:26
  Speaker 1: the universe works and actually makes sense of it. That
• 2:29
  Speaker 1: would be an exciting day. That is a day in
• 2:31
  Speaker 1: the future. But until then, we can peel it apart,
• 2:34
  Speaker 1: one little bit at a time and try to help
• 2:37
  Speaker 1: you understand something about the nature of the universe. And
• 2:41
  Speaker 1: to do that, we want to encourage you to ask
• 2:44
  Speaker 1: your questions, to think deep thoughts about how the universe
• 2:47
  Speaker 1: works and to wonder when things don't fit together. And
• 2:50
  Speaker 1: so for that reason, we love on this podcast answering
• 2:53
  Speaker 1: questions from listeners. And so you probably noticed by now
• 2:57
  Speaker 1: is just me here in the studio today, So as usual,
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  Speaker 1: I'm going to use this opportunity to catch up on
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  Speaker 1: some listener questions, and so on today's program we have
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  Speaker 1: listeners questions about diamonds and Jupiter, about chips approaching each
• 3:17
  Speaker 1: other near the speed of light, and about what knocked
• 3:20
  Speaker 1: Uranus on its side. So thank you to everybody who
• 3:23
  Speaker 1: writes in with their questions via Twitter, via email, or
• 3:27
  Speaker 1: sends us an audio clip that we can actually use
• 3:29
  Speaker 1: on the podcast. If you have questions that you want answered,
• 3:33
  Speaker 1: we answer every tweet. We're right back to every email.
• 3:37
  Speaker 1: Please send us your questions two questions at Daniel and
• 3:41
  Speaker 1: Jorge dot com. We really want to explain the universe
• 3:44
  Speaker 1: to you. And if you're too shy to send us questions,
• 3:48
  Speaker 1: you can also drop into my public office hours where
• 3:52
  Speaker 1: I hang out on zoo and answer physics questions from
• 3:55
  Speaker 1: anybody and everybody, including follow up questions and crazy hypotheticals.
• 4:00
  Speaker 1: So please come join us if you want connection and
• 4:02
  Speaker 1: schedule details about my public office hours. Check out my
• 4:05
  Speaker 1: websites at sites dot u, se I, dot edu, slash
• 4:10
  Speaker 1: Daniel where you can find all the information. Alright, so
• 4:14
  Speaker 1: let's dig into some of these super fun questions from listeners.
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  Speaker 1: Here's the first one. It's all about diamonds. Hey, Daniel
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  Speaker 1: and Jorgey. This is Andy and Indiana and I just
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  Speaker 1: had a hypothetical question for you. Suppose it were possible
• 4:27
  Speaker 1: to fly a spaceship up next to Jupiter at the
• 4:30
  Speaker 1: very top of its atmosphere, and you tossed a piece
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  Speaker 1: of coal out the window. Would it turn into a
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  Speaker 1: diamond before it hit the ground? Thanks guys, I love
• 4:38
  Speaker 1: the podcast. All right, So Andy and Indiana doesn't want
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  Speaker 1: to go to the mall to buy a diamond for
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  Speaker 1: an engagement ring, and instead wants to fly to Jubiter,
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  Speaker 1: drop a piece of coal into the atmosphere and see
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  Speaker 1: if that will turn into a much cheaper diamond. Well,
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  Speaker 1: I'm not sure that's a good return on investment given
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  Speaker 1: the expense of getting to Jupiter, but it's a really
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  Speaker 1: fun question about what actually happens in the crazy intense
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  Speaker 1: heat and pressure of these gas giants. So let's break
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  Speaker 1: it down. How do you actually make a diamond, Like,
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  Speaker 1: how does that happen here on Earth? Could you just
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  Speaker 1: take a piece of coal and squeeze it really really
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  Speaker 1: hard and form a diamond. Well, it's true that diamonds
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  Speaker 1: are just another form of carbon, right, and carbon has
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  Speaker 1: lots of interesting forms. Coal is mostly carbon, graphite is
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  Speaker 1: carbon nanotubes or carbon. You can assemble these little bits
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  Speaker 1: of carbon and lots of different ways that have lots
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  Speaker 1: of different properties at the macroscopic level. And to me,
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  Speaker 1: that's super cool that, like the same basic building blocks,
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  Speaker 1: you can reassemble in different ways and get really very
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  Speaker 1: different materials. Right. It tells you that there's something deep
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  Speaker 1: about the arrangement of stuff, That it's the arrangement of
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  Speaker 1: those carbon molecules that makes a diamond a diamond, and
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  Speaker 1: a piece of coal a coal, not the thing it's
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  Speaker 1: made out of. And that's a deeper truth that we've
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  Speaker 1: learned about the whole Nate you're of the universe, right,
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  Speaker 1: That it's not what you're made out of, but how
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  Speaker 1: you're put together. And that's why, for example, you are
• 6:06
  Speaker 1: made out of the same particles as eighty ms of
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  Speaker 1: lava or of hamster. It's all the same stuff, just
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  Speaker 1: rearranged in another way. And that's the cool thing about diamonds.
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  Speaker 1: If you start from carbon and you get them under
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  Speaker 1: really intense heat and pressure we're talking about like two
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  Speaker 1: thousand degrees fahrenheit, they will form this really interesting structure
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  Speaker 1: which will then survive when it goes back down to
• 6:31
  Speaker 1: lower temperatures. Right, it's not like the diamonds form only
• 6:35
  Speaker 1: in that intense heat and pressure and then sort of
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  Speaker 1: break apart. You form this really intense thing under pressure,
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  Speaker 1: and then it holds up when it gets back down
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  Speaker 1: to lower temperatures and lower pressure. And that's the really
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  Speaker 1: awesome thing. It takes this energy to build it, but
• 6:50
  Speaker 1: once it clicks into place, it's super duper strong. Now,
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  Speaker 1: you don't get diamonds under normal conditions on the surface
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  Speaker 1: of the Earth. Most of the diamonds that are on
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  Speaker 1: people's engagement rings walking around come from like a hundred
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  Speaker 1: and fifty to two hundred kilometers below the surface of
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  Speaker 1: the Earth. That's where the temperature is high enough and
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  Speaker 1: the pressure is intense enough to make it. But it
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  Speaker 1: doesn't come from coal. Right, Most diamonds that we have
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  Speaker 1: are not in the byproduct of coal. Getting squeezed because
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  Speaker 1: coal is actually a relatively late addition to the Earth's crust. Remember,
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  Speaker 1: coal is basically dead plants. Plants form and grow and
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  Speaker 1: they pull carbon out of the atmosphere, and then they
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  Speaker 1: die and they get squished down and you get oil
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  Speaker 1: or carbon. All these fossil fuels are the remnants of
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  Speaker 1: dead plants. But diamonds have been forming on Earth since
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  Speaker 1: well before there were even plants, and so the raw
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  Speaker 1: materials are the same for coal and for diamonds, But
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  Speaker 1: that doesn't mean that the diamonds we have actually form
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  Speaker 1: from coal, right And also coal tends to be in
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  Speaker 1: these sort of horizontal seams. It's laid down in layers,
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  Speaker 1: whereas diamonds we typically find them in the vertical pipes
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  Speaker 1: inside the Earth. And the reason is that these diamonds
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  Speaker 1: are formed deep deep under the Earth's surface two hundred kilometers,
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  Speaker 1: but for us to find them, they need to somehow
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  Speaker 1: get up to the surface of the Earth, and that's
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  Speaker 1: done by volcanoes. So you need these like vertical pipes
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  Speaker 1: of lava that carry the diamonds up from deep under
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  Speaker 1: the Earth's surface to near the surface where we can
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  Speaker 1: find them. In mind, so that's where most of the
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  Speaker 1: diamonds come from. But there's actually another super cool kind
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  Speaker 1: of diamond that's made on the Earth's surface, and that's
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  Speaker 1: an asteroid impact diamond. Remember when our rock hits the Earth,
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  Speaker 1: usually it burns up in the atmosphere, but if it's
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  Speaker 1: big enough, it can make it all the way down
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  Speaker 1: to the surface of the Earth and impact, and if
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  Speaker 1: it's large enough that can have as much energy is
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  Speaker 1: like the explosion of a nuclear weapon. Remember the rock
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  Speaker 1: that killed off the dinosaurs was a really big one.
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  Speaker 1: It tossed a lot of ash and dust into space,
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  Speaker 1: blocking out the Sun. So that is definitely capable of
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  Speaker 1: creating the conditions you would need to form diamonds. You
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  Speaker 1: get super high temperature when that think impacts, and at
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  Speaker 1: the impact side you also have really high pressure, which
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  Speaker 1: means you can form diamonds when they impact. And if
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  Speaker 1: you go to a meteor creater, this crazy hole in
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  Speaker 1: the ground in Arizona, you can actually see these things.
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  Speaker 1: They find these millimeter sized micro diamonds in meteor creater. Alright,
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  Speaker 1: so what would happen if you actually took a chunk
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  Speaker 1: of coal and went to Jupiter and dropped it in
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  Speaker 1: There is Jupiter really capable of forming diamonds, And the
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  Speaker 1: answer is yes, Jupiter's like a diamond forming factory. Now
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  Speaker 1: a lot of this is speculation or based on models,
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  Speaker 1: but we have ideas for what the pressure and temperature
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  Speaker 1: are in the various layers of Jupiter's atmosphere, and we
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  Speaker 1: have this from models that we've developed, and then we
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  Speaker 1: can test them from various probes that have gone to
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  Speaker 1: visit the planets and gather a little bit of data
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  Speaker 1: and constrain those model and those models tell us that
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  Speaker 1: in the interior of Jupiter, you do have the pressure
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  Speaker 1: and the temperature necessary to make diamonds. And for a
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  Speaker 1: long time, people thought that it was mostly uranous and
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  Speaker 1: Neptune that were diamond making factories because they have the
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  Speaker 1: raw materials you need to make diamonds, that is, methane.
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  Speaker 1: Methane is a very carbonaceous molecule, and so it has
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  Speaker 1: those raw materials. But these days we think that Jupiter,
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  Speaker 1: which has less methane, also has enough to be making diamonds.
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  Speaker 1: And so what happens is you have this atmospheric methane
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  Speaker 1: sort of on the higher levels, and then you might get,
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  Speaker 1: for example, a spark from lightning storms and the surface
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  Speaker 1: of these planets, and that can spark the formation of
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  Speaker 1: a diamond, which then drops into the interior and gathers
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  Speaker 1: more material as it goes until these diamonds, which then
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  Speaker 1: get heavier, fall deeper and deeper and they grow. And
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  Speaker 1: nobody actually knows how big these diamonds can get. They
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  Speaker 1: might just be small, like super tiny nano diamonds and
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  Speaker 1: you have a whole lot of them. Or it could
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  Speaker 1: be that they accumulate like hail falling in the Earth's atmosphere,
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  Speaker 1: gathering up more and more water. You could even get
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  Speaker 1: these like massive diamond bergs they call them, forming in
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  Speaker 1: the interior of Jupiter. The only way to really figure
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  Speaker 1: that out is to go into probe it, but we
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  Speaker 1: haven't had a chance to do that yet. So we
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  Speaker 1: think that the conditions are right for Saturn and Jupiter
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  Speaker 1: to form diamonds, to have this essentially constant rain of diamonds,
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  Speaker 1: and according to calculations, there were produced tons and tons
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  Speaker 1: of diamonds every year, so they anticipate there are something
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  Speaker 1: like ten million tons of diamonds on Saturn and Jupiter.
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  Speaker 1: So if you could get a probe out there, you
• 11:43
  Speaker 1: wouldn't need to bring your own coal. There are already
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  Speaker 1: tons of diamonds in jubiter But the question was about
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  Speaker 1: whether it would form a diamond before it hit the ground. Remember,
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  Speaker 1: the definition of the ground or the surface of Jupiter
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  Speaker 1: is a bit fuzzy. There is a rocky, icy core,
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  Speaker 1: but things get really dense before you even get there,
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  Speaker 1: and so a bit of coal that turns into diamond
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  Speaker 1: would probably stop well before it reached that rocky icy core.
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  Speaker 1: It would stop when it hits the point where it's
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  Speaker 1: equilibrated right whereas the same density as the stuff that's
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  Speaker 1: around it. And we don't actually know what would happen
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  Speaker 1: to these things as they drop into the core of Jupiter,
• 12:22
  Speaker 1: because on Jupiter specifically, the conditions are so extreme that
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  Speaker 1: it might be possible that these diamonds form liquids. These
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  Speaker 1: diamonds get so compressed that you get like liquid diamond
• 12:35
  Speaker 1: oceans on Jupiter. We think on Urineus and Neptune, to contrast,
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  Speaker 1: that the temperatures are much cooler and you don't reach
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  Speaker 1: that like eight thousand kelvin degrees you need to melt diamonds.
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  Speaker 1: So Urine is a Neptune probably have huge collections of
• 12:50
  Speaker 1: diamonds in their interior, but on Jupiter those diamonds may
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  Speaker 1: have melted and contributed to these vast oceans of liquid
• 12:58
  Speaker 1: diamond It's fascinating. We still don't know really what's going
• 13:02
  Speaker 1: on inside Jupiter. We know it's crazy. We know that
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  Speaker 1: it's very different from what's going on here on Earth,
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  Speaker 1: which makes it hard to extrapolate and hard to measure.
• 13:11
  Speaker 1: But until we get more probes out there dropping coal
• 13:14
  Speaker 1: or just dropping instruments into the atmosphere of Jupiter, then
• 13:19
  Speaker 1: we won't really know what's going on. But it's a
• 13:22
  Speaker 1: fascinating place to learn about what materials can do. You know,
• 13:25
  Speaker 1: it's all the same basic elements, just playing different roles,
• 13:28
  Speaker 1: just fitting together in different ways, and in some cases
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  Speaker 1: you need special conditions in order to make them. But
• 13:34
  Speaker 1: the amazing thing is that they last even after those
• 13:37
  Speaker 1: conditions have broken, even when they get pulled out into
• 13:40
  Speaker 1: lower temperature and pressure conditions, we still have these literal
• 13:44
  Speaker 1: crystals of knowledge that come out of those situations. So
• 13:48
  Speaker 1: thanks Andy from Indiana for asking a fun question about
• 13:51
  Speaker 1: dropping coal into the atmosphere of Jupiter. I want to
• 13:54
  Speaker 1: answer a couple more questions, but first, let's take a
• 13:56
  Speaker 1: quick break. All right, we are back and we are
• 14:12
  Speaker 1: talking about the crazy things that go on in our
• 14:15
  Speaker 1: universe and answering listener questions about the extreme conditions that
• 14:19
  Speaker 1: we find in our solar system and out in deep space.
• 14:22
  Speaker 1: So here we have another fun hypothetical question from Cole. Hello,
• 14:27
  Speaker 1: Daniel and Jorge. This is Cole Packard and I'm from Reading, California.
• 14:31
  Speaker 1: I'm a big fan of the podcast and I love
• 14:33
  Speaker 1: listening to you guys. While I'm driving, I was listening
• 14:35
  Speaker 1: to your episode about how special relativity affects how we
• 14:38
  Speaker 1: perceived time, and it got me thinking, what if two
• 14:42
  Speaker 1: observers were traveling towards each other, both going near the
• 14:45
  Speaker 1: speed of light, would their relative philosophies be close to
• 14:48
  Speaker 1: twice the speed of light? Would the time distortion make
• 14:52
  Speaker 1: each observer look extremely slow to the other. Looking forward
• 14:55
  Speaker 1: to hearing your answers. Thank you all right, Thanks very
• 14:58
  Speaker 1: much Cole for asking a question about one of my
• 15:00
  Speaker 1: favorite topics, which is the crazy bonkers nature of our
• 15:04
  Speaker 1: universe at high velocity. Because we here on Earth are
• 15:08
  Speaker 1: used to things moving pretty slow, and we developed an
• 15:11
  Speaker 1: intuition that tells us what happens when you throw a baseball.
• 15:15
  Speaker 1: How fast is that baseball moving relative to the ground.
• 15:17
  Speaker 1: And it turns out that intuition is just flat wrong.
• 15:21
  Speaker 1: I mean, it mostly works if things are moving slow,
• 15:24
  Speaker 1: but it turns out the rules are actually fundamentally different,
• 15:28
  Speaker 1: and that only when you get to very high velocities,
• 15:31
  Speaker 1: velocities approaching the speed of light, do you see that
• 15:34
  Speaker 1: intuition breaking down and reveal the true nature of the universe.
• 15:38
  Speaker 1: But this is one of my favorite examples. This is
• 15:40
  Speaker 1: why we push ourselves to understand the extreme situations of
• 15:44
  Speaker 1: the universe, because it's there that the truth is revealed.
• 15:47
  Speaker 1: And we don't want just an intuitive understanding of the
• 15:50
  Speaker 1: universe that's sort of kind of works. We want to
• 15:53
  Speaker 1: know the truth. We want to read the fundamental truth
• 15:56
  Speaker 1: of the universe. We want to reveal its source code.
• 15:59
  Speaker 1: We want to understand how the universe actually works, not
• 16:03
  Speaker 1: just some approximation that kind of works in some situations.
• 16:07
  Speaker 1: So that's why I love special relativity and examples like
• 16:10
  Speaker 1: this that make us try to understand how things work
• 16:12
  Speaker 1: in crazy conditions. Now, Cole was asking us a fun
• 16:16
  Speaker 1: question about what happens when two ships approach each other
• 16:19
  Speaker 1: each moving close to the speed of light, and also
• 16:23
  Speaker 1: what happens to the clocks on those ships. So Cole
• 16:26
  Speaker 1: has managed to touch on basically all the critical elements
• 16:29
  Speaker 1: of special relativity. So to answer this question, we're gonna
• 16:32
  Speaker 1: need to remember a few things. First, remember that all
• 16:36
  Speaker 1: speeds are measured as relative speeds. You can't talk about
• 16:39
  Speaker 1: a spaceship moving near the speed of light. You have
• 16:42
  Speaker 1: to say moving near the speed of light as measured
• 16:45
  Speaker 1: by who, or moving near the speed of light relative
• 16:49
  Speaker 1: to what. Because there are no absolute measures, there's no
• 16:52
  Speaker 1: like reference frame floating out there in space that can
• 16:55
  Speaker 1: measure the speed of a ship. You always have to
• 16:57
  Speaker 1: say the speed relative to what. And it's especially important
• 17:01
  Speaker 1: and special relativity because two different observers moving in different
• 17:05
  Speaker 1: speeds will see the same ship and report different results.
• 17:09
  Speaker 1: The thing we have to remember, number two, is that
• 17:11
  Speaker 1: we can't simply add velocities. You know, if you are
• 17:14
  Speaker 1: in a car moving at twenty miles an hour relative
• 17:17
  Speaker 1: to the ground, and you throw a baseball at twenty
• 17:19
  Speaker 1: miles an hour, how fast is that baseball moving a
• 17:22
  Speaker 1: relative to the ground. Well, you think, oh, that's easy.
• 17:25
  Speaker 1: It's twenty miles an hour from the car plus twenty
• 17:28
  Speaker 1: miles an hour from your arm, you have forty miles
• 17:30
  Speaker 1: an hour. And that's true for small velocities. But because
• 17:35
  Speaker 1: in special relativity nothing can go faster than the speed
• 17:38
  Speaker 1: of light, you've got to change that rule. And it
• 17:40
  Speaker 1: turns out that as you get too high velocities, you
• 17:43
  Speaker 1: can't just add those velocities in a simple way. The
• 17:47
  Speaker 1: velocity is added in a really weird, nonlinear way, and
• 17:51
  Speaker 1: that's one thing that prevents you from going faster than
• 17:54
  Speaker 1: the speed of light. So, for example, if you are
• 17:56
  Speaker 1: in a spaceship flying at seven tenths the speed of
• 18:00
  Speaker 1: light relative to the Earth, and you throw a baseball
• 18:03
  Speaker 1: with your amazing arm at seven tenths of the speed
• 18:06
  Speaker 1: of light in the same direction, do we measure that
• 18:08
  Speaker 1: baseball going at point seven plus point seven or one
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  Speaker 1: point four times the speed of light. No, we don't,
• 18:16
  Speaker 1: because you can't just add those velocities. Instead, you get
• 18:20
  Speaker 1: something like zero point nine five times the speed of light.
• 18:24
  Speaker 1: Things don't just add up linearly, and that's another thing
• 18:27
  Speaker 1: that's going to make it really weird to observe the
• 18:30
  Speaker 1: same events at different velocity. And the last thing we
• 18:33
  Speaker 1: need to understand to answer Cole's question is how time
• 18:37
  Speaker 1: is affected by special relativity. And the thing to understand
• 18:40
  Speaker 1: there is that moving clocks run slowly. If you see
• 18:44
  Speaker 1: a clock that's moving away from you really, really fast,
• 18:47
  Speaker 1: you will observe it's time running slowly, all right. So
• 18:52
  Speaker 1: with that in mind, let's dig into Cole's question. Cole says,
• 18:56
  Speaker 1: what happens if these two ships are approaching each other
• 18:59
  Speaker 1: and both are moving near the speed of light. So
• 19:01
  Speaker 1: first let's clarify if both are moving near the speed
• 19:04
  Speaker 1: of light, who is measuring that speed? So let's put
• 19:08
  Speaker 1: Earth at the center of that and say that one
• 19:10
  Speaker 1: ship is coming at Earth near the speed of light,
• 19:13
  Speaker 1: and the other ship is coming at Earth from the
• 19:15
  Speaker 1: other direction, also near the speed of light. So we're
• 19:18
  Speaker 1: on Earth and we measure ship one coming at us
• 19:21
  Speaker 1: near the speed of light from Mars, for example, and
• 19:24
  Speaker 1: the other one is coming the other direction and also
• 19:27
  Speaker 1: near the speed of light. Now you look at those
• 19:29
  Speaker 1: two ships and you ask yourself how fast are they
• 19:32
  Speaker 1: moving relative to each other? If these velocities were very
• 19:35
  Speaker 1: very slow, we were on the surface of the Earth
• 19:37
  Speaker 1: and you had, for example, two cars both coming at
• 19:40
  Speaker 1: you at twenty miles an hour, you could say, oh,
• 19:43
  Speaker 1: the cars are approaching each other at forty miles an hour,
• 19:46
  Speaker 1: but zoom back out to space. If both ships are
• 19:49
  Speaker 1: approaching you at seven tenths the speed of light, you
• 19:52
  Speaker 1: can't say that they are approaching each other at one
• 19:56
  Speaker 1: point four times the speed of light because the velocity
• 19:59
  Speaker 1: addition is not linear. Instead, on each ship they could
• 20:03
  Speaker 1: measure the speed of the other ship and they would
• 20:06
  Speaker 1: see something like of the speed of light, and that
• 20:10
  Speaker 1: works for both ships because the situation is symmetric. So
• 20:13
  Speaker 1: on Earth we measure each ship as coming towards us
• 20:17
  Speaker 1: at like seven tenths the speed of light, but each
• 20:19
  Speaker 1: ship doesn't measure the other one is traveling faster than
• 20:23
  Speaker 1: the speed of light. Because you can't just add the
• 20:25
  Speaker 1: velocities linear, we have this crazy non linear velocity addition
• 20:29
  Speaker 1: rule which changes things. Now here's a bit of a
• 20:32
  Speaker 1: brain twisty part. The distance between the two ships, as
• 20:36
  Speaker 1: seen from Earth is decreasing as faster than the speed
• 20:40
  Speaker 1: of light. That is, from Earth, both ships are moving
• 20:44
  Speaker 1: it less than the speed of light. But if you
• 20:46
  Speaker 1: measure the distance between the ships from Earth, that number
• 20:49
  Speaker 1: is decreasing faster than light could move between the two ships, right,
• 20:53
  Speaker 1: Because that's just measuring the distance between the two ships,
• 20:56
  Speaker 1: and we see one ship going in one direction is
• 20:58
  Speaker 1: seven tenths of speed of light and the other one
• 21:00
  Speaker 1: going in the other direction at seven tenths of speed
• 21:03
  Speaker 1: of light. So we see the distance between them decreasing
• 21:06
  Speaker 1: at faster than the speed of light. And that's okay,
• 21:08
  Speaker 1: because nobody in the scenario is moving faster than the
• 21:12
  Speaker 1: speed of light relative to anybody else, because if you
• 21:15
  Speaker 1: transform to the frame of one ship, they only see
• 21:18
  Speaker 1: that distance decreasing at the speed of light. And that's
• 21:23
  Speaker 1: the crazy thing is that different people can see the
• 21:26
  Speaker 1: same events and report different answers and everybody can be correct. Right.
• 21:32
  Speaker 1: We can give different conflicting reports of the same scenario
• 21:37
  Speaker 1: and all be correct. That's the most crazy thing about
• 21:40
  Speaker 1: the universe I've ever learned about in physics, that there
• 21:43
  Speaker 1: isn't one true history of the universe that we could
• 21:47
  Speaker 1: all agree on, that if we all had accurate clocks
• 21:50
  Speaker 1: and devices and rulers, then we could all figure out,
• 21:53
  Speaker 1: like what really happened? There is no what really happened
• 21:57
  Speaker 1: for the whole universe. There's a what really happened? If
• 22:00
  Speaker 1: you were at this location and moving at this velocity.
• 22:03
  Speaker 1: Then there's another what really happened if you were over
• 22:06
  Speaker 1: there moving at that velocity. And the crazy thing is
• 22:09
  Speaker 1: that they do not have to agree and they can
• 22:12
  Speaker 1: all be correct. We talked about this in our episode
• 22:15
  Speaker 1: about time dilation. For example, different people might have different
• 22:18
  Speaker 1: stories to tell about who won a race, and that's
• 22:21
  Speaker 1: because the definition of now. But whether two things happen
• 22:24
  Speaker 1: at the same moment also depends on where you are
• 22:27
  Speaker 1: and how fast you're moving. And that leads us to
• 22:30
  Speaker 1: the second part of Cole's awesome question about time. You see,
• 22:34
  Speaker 1: we know that moving clocks run slowly. That means that
• 22:38
  Speaker 1: if you see a clock moving at high velocity relative
• 22:41
  Speaker 1: to you, you will see that clock's time running slowly.
• 22:45
  Speaker 1: So say both of these ships which are approaching Earth
• 22:48
  Speaker 1: at seven tenths of speed of light in opposite directions.
• 22:51
  Speaker 1: Both of these ships have a clock on them, and
• 22:53
  Speaker 1: they have awesome telescopes so that the people on the
• 22:56
  Speaker 1: ships can read their own clocks and they can also
• 22:58
  Speaker 1: peer through these super telescopes to read the clock on
• 23:01
  Speaker 1: the other ship. So you're on a ship, you're moving
• 23:04
  Speaker 1: at seven tenths to speed of light. Most people make
• 23:06
  Speaker 1: the mistake of thinking that you will feel time and
• 23:09
  Speaker 1: running slow. You won't. You always feel your time running
• 23:13
  Speaker 1: the same way, running at one second per second. And
• 23:16
  Speaker 1: if you look down at the clock in your hand,
• 23:18
  Speaker 1: you will see it running normally. Why is that? Doesn't
• 23:21
  Speaker 1: time move slow at high speeds? It does, but it
• 23:24
  Speaker 1: only slows down for moving clocks, And your clock, which
• 23:28
  Speaker 1: is in your hand, is not moving relative to you.
• 23:31
  Speaker 1: You are not moving relative to you. And that's why
• 23:35
  Speaker 1: time passes normally for you. Now, if you look through
• 23:38
  Speaker 1: your telescope and you look at the clock on the
• 23:40
  Speaker 1: other ship, you see that clock moving really really fast,
• 23:43
  Speaker 1: coming towards you at of the speed of light. And
• 23:47
  Speaker 1: so you see that clock running slowly. You think, for
• 23:50
  Speaker 1: every ten seconds that passes on your clock, you only
• 23:53
  Speaker 1: see one second tick on that clock. So that's really weird, right,
• 23:57
  Speaker 1: is time passing differently on that ship? No, you can't
• 24:01
  Speaker 1: make statements about that. You can only make statements about
• 24:03
  Speaker 1: what you observe. Because now flip it around and put
• 24:06
  Speaker 1: yourself on the other ship. Right that other ship, they
• 24:10
  Speaker 1: see their clock running normally. They don't see their clock
• 24:14
  Speaker 1: running slowly the way you see it. They see their
• 24:16
  Speaker 1: clock running normally, and when they look through their telescope
• 24:19
  Speaker 1: they see your clock running slowly. It's another example of
• 24:23
  Speaker 1: how two people to observers can give faithful accounts but
• 24:27
  Speaker 1: come up with different stories about what happens. You say
• 24:31
  Speaker 1: their clock is running slowly, they say your clock is
• 24:34
  Speaker 1: running slowly. The physics part of your brain says, what
• 24:37
  Speaker 1: what actually is happening? And the answer is, there are
• 24:40
  Speaker 1: different things happening based on where you are and how
• 24:44
  Speaker 1: fast you are going, right, because truth and history are
• 24:48
  Speaker 1: not absolute anymore. They are relative, and they are a
• 24:51
  Speaker 1: function of location and velocity. And you might think to yourself,
• 24:56
  Speaker 1: how can that possibly be the reality? How can our
• 24:59
  Speaker 1: universe actually work that way? Doesn't it lead to all
• 25:02
  Speaker 1: sorts of contradictions. Well, you know, all these effects happen
• 25:06
  Speaker 1: when people are far apart or moving relative to each
• 25:09
  Speaker 1: other at very high speeds, and so it makes it
• 25:12
  Speaker 1: hard to spot these things. And you just have an
• 25:15
  Speaker 1: intuition that the universe works in a certain way, that
• 25:18
  Speaker 1: there's like a universe clock that ticks forward, and the
• 25:21
  Speaker 1: universe has sort of a state right now, and then
• 25:23
  Speaker 1: it takes forward and has another state, sort of like
• 25:25
  Speaker 1: a universal movie that's sliding forward in time. But that's
• 25:29
  Speaker 1: just not the situation. What we've revealed to our experiments
• 25:33
  Speaker 1: is that things really do depend on where you are
• 25:36
  Speaker 1: and how fast you are going. That there is really
• 25:39
  Speaker 1: no absolute truth to what happens in the universe. Alright, cold,
• 25:43
  Speaker 1: thanks very much for asking that super fun question. I
• 25:45
  Speaker 1: want to get to one more question, but first let's
• 25:48
  Speaker 1: take another break. Okay, we're back, and we are talking
• 26:03
  Speaker 1: about the crazy things that happened in our universe, things
• 26:07
  Speaker 1: that happened at light speed, things that happened it's super
• 26:09
  Speaker 1: high pressure and temperature, and now we're going to talk
• 26:12
  Speaker 1: about some of the weird things that we see in
• 26:15
  Speaker 1: our universe, specifically in our solar system. Hey, Daniel and Jorge,
• 26:20
  Speaker 1: this is Brendon from St. Louis, Missouri, and I have
• 26:22
  Speaker 1: a question for you guys that I've been thinking about
• 26:24
  Speaker 1: for a little while. Now. You can only find that
• 26:26
  Speaker 1: we apparently don't know. I'm just wondering if that's really
• 26:29
  Speaker 1: true or what our latest understanding is of what happened
• 26:31
  Speaker 1: to uriness to make it sideways and could that have
• 26:34
  Speaker 1: been what gave it its rings or is that just
• 26:36
  Speaker 1: wild speculation? Would love you guys, input on something like this.
• 26:39
  Speaker 1: All right, thanks very much for that awesome question. I
• 26:42
  Speaker 1: love Urinus because Urinus is really weird. It's not just
• 26:46
  Speaker 1: that it makes diamonds that rain in the interior. It's
• 26:49
  Speaker 1: a very unusual planet relative to the other planets in
• 26:53
  Speaker 1: our solar system. Right, if you look at the Solar
• 26:55
  Speaker 1: system sort of from the top down, the Sun is
• 26:58
  Speaker 1: spinning counter clock wise, and you notice that most of
• 27:01
  Speaker 1: the things in the Solar system follow that pattern. They
• 27:04
  Speaker 1: move around the Sun counterclockwise, and they rotate counterclockwise. And
• 27:09
  Speaker 1: there's a reason for that. That's not an accident. That's
• 27:11
  Speaker 1: conservation of angular momentum at work. You see all the
• 27:15
  Speaker 1: stuff that made our Solar system, the big blob of
• 27:18
  Speaker 1: gas and dust and little particles and flex of gold
• 27:21
  Speaker 1: from previous solar systems. All that stuff, when it formed,
• 27:24
  Speaker 1: was already spinning. And that spin can't just go away, right.
• 27:29
  Speaker 1: If you start something spinning in space and leave it,
• 27:32
  Speaker 1: it will spin forever. And so if you have a
• 27:34
  Speaker 1: huge cloud of gas and dust, it might be spinning slowly,
• 27:37
  Speaker 1: but then when gravity coalesces it into something smaller and
• 27:41
  Speaker 1: denser than it needs to spin faster in order to
• 27:44
  Speaker 1: have the same total amount of spin. It's like a
• 27:47
  Speaker 1: figure skater. If she pulls her arms in, she goes
• 27:50
  Speaker 1: faster because she has to have a higher rotation rate
• 27:53
  Speaker 1: to have the same total angular momentum. And so as
• 27:57
  Speaker 1: that huge cloud of slowly spinning gas and dust coalesced
• 28:01
  Speaker 1: into the Sun and the planets, that spin couldn't just
• 28:04
  Speaker 1: go away. And that's why we get the planets mostly
• 28:07
  Speaker 1: going around the Sun in the same direction that the
• 28:10
  Speaker 1: Sun is spinning, and also spinning around their axes in
• 28:14
  Speaker 1: that same direction. And that's why it's really interesting and
• 28:18
  Speaker 1: really weird that it's only mostly the case. Those exceptions
• 28:22
  Speaker 1: are fascinating because they might just reveal crazy stories about
• 28:26
  Speaker 1: what happened in the formation of our solar system. And
• 28:29
  Speaker 1: so urine is in particular is an odd ball, quite literally,
• 28:33
  Speaker 1: because it's tilted more than ninety degrees. It's not just
• 28:37
  Speaker 1: on its side, it's on its side plus a little bit,
• 28:40
  Speaker 1: and it spins clockwise instead of counterclockwise, so it really
• 28:45
  Speaker 1: stands out. And because urine is is not a small thing, right,
• 28:48
  Speaker 1: it's not like one tiny little rock that happens to
• 28:51
  Speaker 1: be spinning the wrong way. It's an enormous ice giant
• 28:55
  Speaker 1: of a planet. It's got a lot of mass, which
• 28:57
  Speaker 1: means it has a lot of kinetic energy and a
• 29:00
  Speaker 1: lot of angular momentum. It's not something that happens very easily.
• 29:04
  Speaker 1: And the more you look at Uranus, the more you
• 29:06
  Speaker 1: see that it's weird. I mean, it's not just that
• 29:08
  Speaker 1: it's tipped over, so it has like vertical rings and
• 29:11
  Speaker 1: vertical moons. But in the summer, it's north pole points
• 29:15
  Speaker 1: towards the sun right. That makes really weird seasons, and
• 29:20
  Speaker 1: the definition of north pole is sort of odd on
• 29:22
  Speaker 1: Urinus also because it's defined by the axis. But the
• 29:26
  Speaker 1: magnetic poles are not very well lined up with its spin.
• 29:30
  Speaker 1: It has this really weird off center magnetic field. And
• 29:34
  Speaker 1: you know, on most planets we think the magnetic field
• 29:36
  Speaker 1: is formed by like the slashing around of currents of
• 29:39
  Speaker 1: molten metals, but we don't really know what's going on
• 29:42
  Speaker 1: inside Uranus, and we don't know why that spinning would
• 29:45
  Speaker 1: give you a different magnetic field direction than the actual
• 29:49
  Speaker 1: spin of the planet. So for a long time people
• 29:52
  Speaker 1: have thought this must be evidence of some cosmic collision.
• 29:56
  Speaker 1: Why would you think a cosmic collision, Well, the reason
• 29:59
  Speaker 1: is that in order to have something stop spinning or
• 30:02
  Speaker 1: to change its spin, you need something external. You need
• 30:05
  Speaker 1: something to come from outside the solar system, some new
• 30:09
  Speaker 1: source of angular momentum that comes in and can stop
• 30:12
  Speaker 1: the spin or knock the spin, or change the spin.
• 30:15
  Speaker 1: That's why we think about Uriness maybe having such a
• 30:18
  Speaker 1: strange configuration because it got knocked into by some huge
• 30:22
  Speaker 1: thing that came in from outside the solar system. But
• 30:25
  Speaker 1: this thing would have to be huge, like the calculations.
• 30:28
  Speaker 1: Until about a year ago, people were thinking this needed
• 30:31
  Speaker 1: some object like twice the mass of the Earth. So again,
• 30:35
  Speaker 1: this is not a little rock that hit Urin. It's
• 30:37
  Speaker 1: you know, a little rock like the size of the
• 30:39
  Speaker 1: one that killed the dinosaurs. This is a rock twice
• 30:42
  Speaker 1: the size of the Earth that collided into Urinus and
• 30:46
  Speaker 1: knocked it over. At least that was the theory for
• 30:49
  Speaker 1: a while. But you know, let that marinate in your
• 30:51
  Speaker 1: head for a minute, Like, what would that have looked
• 30:54
  Speaker 1: like if you could have seen that up close? Oh
• 30:57
  Speaker 1: my gosh, it would have put Michael Bay and all
• 30:58
  Speaker 1: the Transformer movie to shame. I would have loved to
• 31:01
  Speaker 1: see that sort of real effect in action. Of course,
• 31:05
  Speaker 1: from a safe distance. The problem is that it would
• 31:07
  Speaker 1: have been a very cataclysmic event, and we should see
• 31:10
  Speaker 1: records of it all around the environment of urine is.
• 31:14
  Speaker 1: But when we look, for example, at the moons if
• 31:16
  Speaker 1: urine is, we don't see that. If such an event happened,
• 31:19
  Speaker 1: you would expect, for example, all the ice to be
• 31:21
  Speaker 1: stripped from those moons and to have mostly just like
• 31:24
  Speaker 1: little bits of rock, as those moons would have been obliterated.
• 31:27
  Speaker 1: But we don't really see that, and so there's not
• 31:30
  Speaker 1: the evidence of that huge collision. But we still have
• 31:33
  Speaker 1: urine Is knocked over on its side. What could have
• 31:36
  Speaker 1: done that other than some weird external source of angular momentum, Well,
• 31:41
  Speaker 1: it could also be a weird interplay. But with the
• 31:44
  Speaker 1: angular momentum inside the Solar System, which you can sort
• 31:47
  Speaker 1: of slash around from object to object, and you might wonder, well,
• 31:51
  Speaker 1: how can that happen without collisions? Will remember that there's
• 31:53
  Speaker 1: still gravity here, and there's lots of different objects slashing around.
• 31:57
  Speaker 1: Urinus is there, and it has rings and very barious
• 32:00
  Speaker 1: objects in the Solar System can transfer angular momentum back
• 32:03
  Speaker 1: and forth between each other just using gravity. For example,
• 32:07
  Speaker 1: the Earth's moon is slowing down the spin of the
• 32:10
  Speaker 1: Earth as it leaves, it's sort of stealing our angular
• 32:13
  Speaker 1: momentum because of these gravitational interactions. And so recently there's
• 32:18
  Speaker 1: been a new theory for how Urinus might have gotten
• 32:21
  Speaker 1: its weird direction and weird spin, and it has to
• 32:24
  Speaker 1: do with how Urinus is orbit around the Sun interferes
• 32:28
  Speaker 1: and interacts with its spin. And that is that Uranus,
• 32:31
  Speaker 1: like most planets, doesn't orbit the Sun in a perfect circle.
• 32:35
  Speaker 1: It orbits it and an ellipse, and an ellipse, un
• 32:39
  Speaker 1: like a circle, has a preferred direction that a long axis, well,
• 32:42
  Speaker 1: that long axis moves around the Sun, and that's called precession.
• 32:46
  Speaker 1: In a similar way, there's a precession for the spin
• 32:48
  Speaker 1: of the planet. It turns out that those two things
• 32:51
  Speaker 1: can create a resonance which can actually affect the angle
• 32:54
  Speaker 1: that the planet is tilting at, sort of like if
• 32:56
  Speaker 1: you think about a gyroscope here on Earth. You can
• 32:59
  Speaker 1: spin a gyr scope and then see it's sort of
• 33:01
  Speaker 1: like tilt over. They're all these really complicated dynamics with
• 33:04
  Speaker 1: angular momentum that can get your brains would twisted up.
• 33:07
  Speaker 1: But they have done these calculations and they've done these models,
• 33:10
  Speaker 1: and they've seen that like a gyroscope effect. If you
• 33:13
  Speaker 1: get Uriness in the right configuration, then it's spin procession
• 33:16
  Speaker 1: and it's orbit can interfere in a way that tilts
• 33:19
  Speaker 1: it over. But the funny thing is that in these
• 33:21
  Speaker 1: models for their calculations, they've only ever gotten the urine
• 33:24
  Speaker 1: is like planet to tilt over about like sixty five
• 33:27
  Speaker 1: or seventy degrees. They can't get into tilt all the
• 33:30
  Speaker 1: way over to ninety degrees just using this trick with
• 33:33
  Speaker 1: the interference of the processions. And so then they added
• 33:37
  Speaker 1: the collision of a smaller object. So it turns out
• 33:40
  Speaker 1: if you tilted over using this gyroscope procession effect, and
• 33:44
  Speaker 1: then you toss in a planet just about half the
• 33:47
  Speaker 1: size of Earth instead of twice the size of Earth,
• 33:50
  Speaker 1: then you can knock Uriness over on its side without
• 33:53
  Speaker 1: blasting all the ice from its moons. So that means
• 33:56
  Speaker 1: that if you hit Urinus with an object half the
• 33:59
  Speaker 1: size of Earth instead of twice the size of Earth,
• 34:02
  Speaker 1: it can survive. It can get the right tilt, and
• 34:04
  Speaker 1: the moons can keep their ice. So you know, a
• 34:07
  Speaker 1: lot of this is guesswork. We really just don't know
• 34:10
  Speaker 1: what we're doing. Is we're looking at the clues that
• 34:12
  Speaker 1: we see here today in our solar system, and we're
• 34:15
  Speaker 1: trying to explain things that happen maybe billions of years ago,
• 34:19
  Speaker 1: and we're doing these calculations and try to say, hey,
• 34:22
  Speaker 1: could this be an explanation? So we're building up more
• 34:25
  Speaker 1: and more sophisticated possible explanations for what might explain what
• 34:29
  Speaker 1: we see. That doesn't mean conclusively this is what happened,
• 34:33
  Speaker 1: right the way science work, Since you come up with
• 34:35
  Speaker 1: a potential explanation for what you see, and then you
• 34:38
  Speaker 1: ask yourself questions like what would be unique about this
• 34:41
  Speaker 1: or what can I predict? How else could I test
• 34:44
  Speaker 1: this model? And that's, for example, how people came up
• 34:46
  Speaker 1: with this curiosity of the fact that there is still
• 34:49
  Speaker 1: ice on the moons of Uranus, which is not consistent
• 34:52
  Speaker 1: with having Urinus be impacted by an object twice the
• 34:55
  Speaker 1: mass of the Earth. So as you make more refinements,
• 34:58
  Speaker 1: you ask yourself more questions, as this explain this be?
• 35:01
  Speaker 1: Could I test it in this other way? You come
• 35:03
  Speaker 1: up with more and more clever ideas for how to
• 35:05
  Speaker 1: test your theory, and if he keeps passing those tests,
• 35:08
  Speaker 1: then you build confidence in this explanation and if it fails,
• 35:11
  Speaker 1: one of them go back to the drawing board and
• 35:13
  Speaker 1: you come up with a new idea. But hey, that's
• 35:16
  Speaker 1: the process of science. That's why we ask these questions,
• 35:19
  Speaker 1: because by asking them, we learn things, and we slowly
• 35:22
  Speaker 1: peel back layers of reality to reveal the true nature
• 35:27
  Speaker 1: of the universe. And so I'm just excited to be
• 35:29
  Speaker 1: on this journey here with you, trying to understand the universe,
• 35:33
  Speaker 1: trying to peel back those layers of reality, trying to
• 35:35
  Speaker 1: get us closer to the ultimate truth about the way
• 35:38
  Speaker 1: the universe actually works. So thanks to everybody who's sent
• 35:42
  Speaker 1: in those questions, and thanks to everybody who engages with
• 35:45
  Speaker 1: us on Twitter at Daniel and Jorge or sends us
• 35:48
  Speaker 1: questions to questions at Daniel and Jorge dot com. We
• 35:52
  Speaker 1: love hearing from you. We want to answer your questions
• 35:55
  Speaker 1: about the universe. We want to explain the universe to you.
• 35:59
  Speaker 1: So thanks everybody for your attention and your questions and
• 36:01
  Speaker 1: for sharing your curiosity with us. Tune in next time.
• 36:13
  Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explained
• 36:16
  Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of I Heart Radio. For
• 36:19
  Speaker 1: more podcast from my Heart Radio, visit the I heart Radio,
• 36:22
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• 36:28
  Speaker 1: YE