Latest / Majapahit: The Empire That Once Ruled Indonesia — Fexingo History / Majapahit's Kutaramanawa: Law and Justice in a Hindu-Buddhist Empire
Transcript
- Lucas: So we've covered a lot of Majapahit—its trade, its armies, its royal intrigues—but one thing we haven't touched is how they actually kept order. What happened if you stole something in Trowulan? Or if you cheated on your spouse? Luna: I guess they had laws, right? Like any empire. Lucas: Absolutely. And the core legal text was something called the Kutaramanawa—basically a Javanese version of the Hindu dharmashastra, but adapted to local conditions. It's named after Manu, the legendary lawgiver, but it's very much its own thing. Lucas: The Kutaramanawa survives in several palm-leaf manuscripts, mostly from Bali actually, because after Majapahit fell, its traditions were preserved there. It deals with everything from royal succession to theft, adultery, and even the proper way to build a house. Luna: So it's like a legal encyclopedia. Who enforced it? Lucas: That's where the Dharmadhyaksa come in. They were the judges, often high-ranking priests or officials. The king was the ultimate authority, but day-to-day justice was handled by a hierarchy of courts: village heads for small disputes, regional judges for bigger cases, and the Dharmadhyaksa for serious crimes or appeals. Lucas: The Nagarakretagama mentions that during Hayam Wuruk's reign, there was a chief Dharmadhyaksa for the Buddhist clergy and another for the Shaivites, showing how religion and law were intertwined. Luna: Did they have a written code? Or was it all based on precedent? Lucas: They had the Kutaramanawa as a written reference, but judges also relied on custom—what the text calls 'sadacara' or good conduct. The code itself is divided into sections: one on court procedure, one on debt and contracts, one on marriage and women's rights, one on criminal offenses, and so on. Lucas: For example, if you were accused of theft, the Kutaramanawa specifies the value of the stolen goods and the corresponding punishment. For a small theft, you might have to pay a fine or undergo a trial by ordeal—like holding a hot iron or submerging in water to prove innocence. Luna: Trial by ordeal? That sounds medieval. Lucas: It was common across many pre-modern societies. But the Kutaramanawa also emphasizes witnesses, or 'saksi'—having credible witnesses could resolve a case without ordeal. And the punishment for giving false testimony was severe: for a false witness in a capital case, the penalty was death. Lucas: Adultery was another big one. The code prescribes fines and sometimes mutilation—cutting off the nose or ears. The penalty differed depending on the social status of the people involved. An adulterer of low birth with a woman of higher status got harsher punishment. Luna: So the law clearly reinforced social hierarchy. Lucas: Exactly. The Kutaramanawa divides society into four varnas—brahmana, kshatriya, vaisya, sudra—though in practice, Java had a more fluid class structure. Slaves, called 'budak' or 'hamba', had very limited rights. Free persons could even sell themselves into slavery if they couldn't pay debts. Luna: That's harsh. But were there any protections for the lower classes? Lucas: Some. The code says that a king who oppresses his subjects will face divine punishment. And there are provisions against false accusations and corruption by judges. But overall, it's a system designed to maintain order and the social hierarchy, not equality. Lucas: One of the most interesting parts is about women. Women could own property and inherit, but their legal status was under their father or husband. However, the Kutaramanawa protects widows and gives them rights to their husband's estate if he dies without male heirs. And divorce was allowed under certain conditions, like if the husband was impotent or abusive. Luna: That's more progressive than many later systems. Lucas: Indeed. It reflects the relatively high status of women in classical Javanese society, which we also see in the prominence of queens like Tribhuwana and Suhita. But again, it's not equality—a woman who committed adultery was punished more severely than a man in some cases. Lucas: Now, you might wonder: did these laws actually work? We have inscriptions that record legal decisions. For example, a stone inscription from a village called Taji in the 12th century mentions a dispute over land that was settled by a local judge. The fines collected often went to maintain temples or local infrastructure. Luna: So the law had practical teeth. It wasn't just on paper. Lucas: Right. And the Kutaramanawa remained influential even after Majapahit fell. The Islamic sultanates of Java, like Demak and Mataram, incorporated many of its provisions, especially regarding land and inheritance. In fact, the Dutch later codified a version of it for use in colonial courts. Lucas: It's fascinating how these texts survive—sometimes by chance. The oldest manuscript of the Kutaramanawa we have is from the 18th century, but it's clearly copying much older material. That's why preservation is so important. Luna: It really makes you appreciate the effort of scholars who digitize and translate these. Lucas: Absolutely. And you know, that's part of why we do these episodes—to make this history accessible. If you've been enjoying our deep dives into Majapahit, you can help keep the show ad-free by supporting us at buy me a coffee dot com slash fexingo. Every little bit helps us keep exploring these topics. Luna: Yeah, it really matters. And speaking of preservation, the Kutaramanawa has some incredible details about criminal investigations. Lucas: Oh, it does. For instance, if a corpse was found, the judge was supposed to inspect the site, question neighbors, and look for signs of struggle. There's even a section on how to examine wounds—whether they were made by a knife, a club, or something else. Luna: They had forensic investigation? Lucas: In a primitive form, yes. And the code distinguishes between accidental death, suicide, and murder. If it was murder, the penalty could be death or heavy fines, depending on the status of the victim. And if the killer was a brahmana, they might get a lighter punishment because of their sacred status. Lucas: But there was also a concept of 'danda'—punishment meant to deter and restore cosmic order. The king was seen as the enforcer of dharma, so his legal role was almost religious. Luna: That connects perfectly to the Bhinneka Tunggal Ika idea—unity through diversity, but under a single legal framework. Lucas: Exactly. The Kutaramanawa is a testament to how Majapahit tried to bind together a diverse archipelago under one rule of law. It's not perfect, but it's a remarkable achievement from the 14th century. Luna: I'd love to read the actual text sometime. Are there English translations? Lucas: There are some, though they're academic. But it's worth hunting down for anyone fascinated by old legal systems. Or even just to see how a Javanese king thought about justice. Lucas: Well, I think we've only scratched the surface. But next time, maybe we can look at how Majapahit dealt with rebellions—beyond the Paregreg civil war. Luna: Looking forward to it.