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A Defense of Christian Apologetics · Reformed Thinking

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Podcast Intro Voice Welcome to Reformed Thinking, a podcast
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dedicated to examining Christian truth through the lens of
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Reformed theology. Join us as we consider how God's
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Word shapes our understanding of His world and His ways.
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Welcome everyone, Great to have you with us for this deep dive.
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Today we are really getting into Christian apologetics.
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We want to unpack what it actually is, look at how
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Christians you know throughout history have defended their
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beliefs, and maybe touch on some of the main arguments for God's
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existence. Our mission here is pretty
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straightforward. We're aiming to pull out the key
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ideas from the sources we've looked at.
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We want to give you a solid but clear understanding of this
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whole area. Think of it like a map, helping
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you get informed on defending Christian truth.
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We might uncover some surprising things and hopefully connect the
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dots a bit. So let's start right at the
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beginning. What exactly is Christian
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apologetics? The word itself?
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Apologetics. It sounds like saying sorry,
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maybe, but that's not it at all, is it?
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It comes from Greek, right? Apologia.
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That's exactly right, yeah. Apologia in Greek means a
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defense like you'd give in a courtroom.
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It's not about being apologetic in the modern sense.
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It's about making a reasoned case for something.
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Kelly James Clark puts it nicely.
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He calls it the art of defending a claim against objections.
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OK, so defending a claim, how does that apply specifically in
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the Christian context? Well, Norman Geisler defines it
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as the discipline that deals with the rational defense of
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Christian faith, and Stephen Cowan adds that it's concerned
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with the defense of the Christian faith against charges
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of falsehood, inconsistency or credulity.
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It's really about making a positive case for the truth of
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Christianity. Makes sense.
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And this isn't just some academic exercise.
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It's grounded right there in Scripture.
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You look at first Peter 3.15. Right, the classic verse.
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Exactly. It tells believers to always
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being ready to make a defense Apologia.
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There's that word again to everyone who asks you to give an
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account for the hope that is in you, yet with gentleness and
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reference. And then you've got 2nd
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Corinthians 10.5 talking about destroying speculations and
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every lofty thing raised up against the knowledge of God,
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and taking every thought captive to the obedience of Christ.
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So it's a biblical instruction really.
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Gauge with objections. Make a defense, but do it
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humbly. Precisely.
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Gentleness and reverence are key.
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And it seems like this discipline, apologetics, it kind
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of serves 2 main purposes, doesn't it?
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On one hand, it's an intellectual thing aimed at
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maybe strengthening the faith of Christians themselves, helping
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them understand why they believe what they believe.
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Yes, that's a huge part of it, bolstering the faith of
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believers, giving them confidence in the reasonableness
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of their faith. And the other side, the other
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side is helping out with evangelism, providing reasons,
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answering questions for those who don't yet believe.
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It can clear away intellectual roadblocks, you know.
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OK, so strengthening believers and aiding evangelism both
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really important. And within apologetics itself,
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we often talk about two broad types, or maybe 2 directions.
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First, there's what's called negative or maybe defensive
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apologetics. OK, this is all about giving
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answers to objections people raise against Christianity.
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Things like, well, the problem of evil is a big one.
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Always comes up. Always or questions about
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miracles or the Trinity? How can God be 3 in one?
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Defensive apologetics tackles those tough questions, so.
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Defending the turf, so to speak. Pretty much.
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And then on the other hand, you have positive or sometimes
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called offensive apologetics. This isn't about being
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obnoxious, obviously. It's about offering positive
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reasons for the Christian faith. Like arguments for God.
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Exactly. Arguments for God's existence,
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evidence for the resurrection, the reliability of the Bible.
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John Frame even says apologetics involves going on the attack
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against falsehood, exposing the foolishness, as the Bible puts
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it, of non Christian ways thinking, showing why they don't
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ultimately work. Defense and offense, got it.
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So let's really pivot now to some of those positive arguments
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you mentioned, the big intellectual reasons people have
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put forward for God's existence. These seem pretty foundational.
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Maybe we can start with one of the most, well, traditional
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ones, the cosmological argument. The one that looks at the
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universe and says essentially this couldn't have just popped
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into existence by itself. That's the one.
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Yeah. It's a classic.
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The core idea is pretty simple, really.
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It observes that, well, things exist and things that begin to
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exist, or things that depend on other things for their
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existence. Contingent things.
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They must have a cause. OK, since the universe seems to
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have begun, and it's certainly contingent, it must have a cause
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outside of itself. Thomas Aquinas really developed
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this argument extensively back in the medieval period.
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He argued that this ultimate uncaused cause, well, it must be
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the God of Christianity. Uncaused 'cause.
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Right. And a key part of this is the
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idea that you can't have an infinite regressive causes.
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You can't have causes going back forever and ever with no
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starting point. Like dominoes if there's no
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first domino to push. Exactly.
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If the chain went back infinitely, nothing would ever
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get started. So logically, there must be a
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first uncaused cause to kick everything off.
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And this is what philosophers call an A posteriori argument,
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right? It's based on observing the
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world on experience. Precisely.
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You look at the cosmos, you see cause and effect, and you reason
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backward. Aquinas is the big name here, of
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course, building on Aristotle's idea of an unmoved mover.
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And today you see someone like William Lane Craig using a
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specific version called the column Cosmological Argument
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quite effectively. It focuses specifically on the
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universe having a beginning. So it's still a very relevant
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argument today. Oh.
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Absolutely. Still heavily debated and
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defended. OK, so if the cosmological
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argument is about the cause of the universe, there's another
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big one that looks at the nature of the universe, right?
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The teleological argument, the argument from design.
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This one seems pretty intuitive for a lot of people.
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It really does. Yeah.
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The teleological argument looks at the incredible complexity,
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the order, the apparent purpose you see everywhere in the
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universe, and it argues that this points strongly towards an
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intelligent creator, a designer. It suggests the universe isn't
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just the result of blind random chance.
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Like looking at a complex machine and knowing someone
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built it. Exactly.
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The appearance of design implies a designer think about the fine
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tuning of the physical constants.
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If gravity were just a tiny bit different, life couldn't exist,
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or the complexity of a single living cell.
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It just doesn't look accidental. And again this.
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Is a posteriori based on observation and experience of
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the world. Yes, definitely, based on what
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we see around us. The most famous illustration,
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the one everyone knows, is William Paley's Watch analogy.
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Right, the watch on the Heath. That's it, Paley said.
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Imagine you're walking and find a stone.
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You might think, OK, natural causes, but if you find a watch
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with all its intricate gears working together to tell time,
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you wouldn't dream of saying it just happened by chance.
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You'd know instantly there was a watchmaker.
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Paley's point was, if a simple watch needs a designer, how much
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more does the universe, which is infinitely more complex and
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fine-tuned, point to a divine designer?
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And figures like Augustine and Aquinas also use forms of this
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argument too, didn't they? They certainly saw design as
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evidence for God, yes, but there is a potential limitation here,
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something to keep in mind. Well, the teleological argument,
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especially when used on its own, might convince someone there's a
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designer, but it doesn't necessarily get them all the way
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to the personal, loving, involved God of the Bible.
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It could lead someone to deism. You know, the idea of a
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watchmaker God who created the world but then just left it to
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run on its own without miracles or intervention.
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We even saw that with Anthony Flue, the famous atheist
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philosopher late in life. The evidence for design,
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especially in DNA, convinced him to abandon atheism, but he never
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actually became a Christian. He accepted a designer, but not
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necessarily the God revealed in Christ.
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That's a really interesting point.
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Design points towards God, but maybe not the whole way on its
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own. OK, so we've had arguments from
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cause and design both looking at the world.
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What about an argument that doesn't rely on observing the
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world? The ontological argument?
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This one always felt a bit. It is very different, Yeah.
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The ontological argument is unique.
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It's most famously associated with Anselm of Canterbury.
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His basic idea, put simply, was that the very concept of God
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proves God's existence. And that work.
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Well, Anselm defined God as a meing then, which nothing
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greater can be conceived. The greatest possible being you
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can imagine, then, he argued, if this greatest possible being
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existed only in our minds and our understanding, then we could
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actually conceive of something greater, namely, a being exactly
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like that, but one that also exists in reality.
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Existence in reality, he argued, is greater than existence merely
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in the mind. So for God to truly be the
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greatest conceivable being, He must exist not just in our
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minds, but in reality too. Wow.
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OK, that's, yeah, that takes a moment to process.
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So that makes it an A priori argument then, purely based on
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reason, on the concept itself, before looking at any evidence
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in the world. Exactly, it's an argument from
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definition and logic, not observation, and because of that
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it's been hugely debated throughout history.
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Philosophers like Descartes used versions of it.
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Others like Kant raised major objections arguing existence
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isn't really a property you can just add to a concept like blue
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or heavy right? Bertrand Russell, the atheist
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philosophy, famously thought he'd disproven it for good, but
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interestingly, it's actually seen a bit of a comeback in
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recent philosophy, especially using ideas from modal logic, so
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it's still being discussed. It's intellectually fascinating,
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even if not everyone finds it convincing.
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OK, so we've covered some heavy hitters there.
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Yeah, cosmological, teleological, ontological
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arguments, proofs, or attempted proofs for God.
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Now let's switch gears a bit to something that feels quite
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different. Pascal's Wager.
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This isn't really trying to prove God exists in the same
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way, is it? No, not directly.
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Pascal's Wager, developed by the brilliant mathematician and
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philosopher Blaise Pascal, is more of a pragmatic argument.
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It uses probability, like in gambling, to argue why belief is
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the most rational choice, even if you're uncertain.
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So how does the wager work? Pascal laid it out pretty
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logically. He said basically you have two
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main choices, believe in God or don't believe, and two
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possibilities God exists or God doesn't exist.
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Let's look at the outcomes. One, if you believe in God and
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God does exist, what do you gain?
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Eternal life, Infinite game. High stakes. 2 If you believe in
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God, but God doesn't exist, well, you lose very little.
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Maybe you lived a bit more morally.
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Wasted a few prayers, as Pascal put it.
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Finite, small loss. Three If you don't believe in
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God, and God does exist, what's the outcome?
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Eternal punishment in hell? Infinite loss?
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Catastrophic downside? 4 If you don't believe and God
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doesn't exist, well, you gain maybe some fleeting worldly
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pleasures, but ultimately you gain little of lasting value.
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Finite small gain. So Pascal concluded, looking at
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those potential outcomes, the only rational wager, the smart
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bet, is to believe in God. Because even if there's only a
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small chance God exists, the potential infinite gain and the
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potential infinite loss make betting against God incredibly
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foolish from a purely pragmatic view.
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So it's often seen as more of a second tier argument, maybe
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aimed at motivating someone to take beliefs seriously rather
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than offering strict proof. That's a good way to put it.
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It's trying to overcome indifference or indecision, but
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it's definitely not without its critics.
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Some pretty significant critiques have been raised over
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the years. Like what?
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Well, one big one is does just choosing to believe something
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because it seems like a good bet actually count as real faith?
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Isn't genuine biblical faith about a relationship, about love
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and trust not just a cold calculation of odds?
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Yeah, that makes sense. Can you really make yourself
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believe something just because it's safer?
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Exactly. And then there's the famous
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problem of multiple religions. OK, Pascal says.
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Bet on God, But which God? There are many religions, many
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concepts of God or gods. The wager itself doesn't tell
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you which one to choose. Should you wager on the
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Christian God Allah, Vishnu? It doesn't specify.
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That seems like a pretty major hurdle.
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It is, and some argue it kind of contradicts the Bible itself,
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which presents belief as having inherent value and being a
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response to God's revelation, not just a risk management
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strategy. OK, so we've seen these
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different arguments from cause, design, reason itself, even
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pragmatism. It's clear that people defending
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Christianity don't all do it the same way.
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They must use different overall strategies or methodologies.
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Absolutely. That's a crucial point.
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There isn't just one single way to do apologetics.
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Overtime, different schools of thought, different methodologies
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have developed. The main ones historically
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include the classical method, OK, the evidential method, the
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cumulative case method, the reformed epistemological method,
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and the one we're going to spend a bit more time on, the
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presuppositional method. Lots of methods.
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Each one has a different starting point, a different
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emphasis, a different way of building the case and
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interacting with objections. And for this deep dive you
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mentioned, we're going to focus particularly on the
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presuppositional method. Why that one?
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Well, partly because of its connection to reformed theology,
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which is the focus of this podcast, but also because it
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takes a very distinctive foundational approach.
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It really gets down to the bedrock assumptions underneath
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all thinking. OK, let's dive into
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presuppositional apologetics then.
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Yeah, you describe it as biblical, theological and
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foundational. How does it actually work?
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How is it different? Well, the key difference is
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where it starts. Instead of jumping right into
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arguing for, say, specific miracles or historical events,
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like did Jesus really feed 5000 people?
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Presuppositional ISM tends to begin with more fundamental
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issues. It argues that you can't really
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even have a meaningful discussion about evidence or
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truth or reason itself unless you first examine the underlying
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worldview assumptions everyone brings to the table.
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So it's about the foundations before you build a house.
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That's a great analogy, yeah. It says you need to check the
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foundations first. Are they solid?
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Do they actually support the structure of knowledge and
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reality? So a big part of it is worldview
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analysis, then comparing Christianity to other ways of
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seeing the world. Exactly.
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It argues that Christianity, when properly understood,
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provides A coherent, consistent framework that actually makes
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sense of reality. Things like logic, science,
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morality, human dignity. And other world views.
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And that other world views, whether it's naturalism, the
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idea that only matter exists, or Eastern pantheism, or just
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modern secular hedonism, ultimately fail.
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They either contradict themselves, or they can't
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account for the very things we experience and take for granted,
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like the reliability of our own minds or the existence of
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objective right and wrong. It tries to show these other
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systems kind of breakdown under pressure to do that.
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It really digs into some core philosophical areas, but from a
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distinctly Christian perspective, things like
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anthropology, what does it mean to be human, created in God's
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image, but also fallen? How does sin affect our
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thinking, our ability to see truth?
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That that's crucial for understanding who you're talking
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to. Right, the state of the person
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you're engaging with. Yes, and hamartiology.
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The doctrine of sin is central. Presuppositionalism often argues
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the main barrier for the unbeliever isn't a lack of
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evidence, but a moral and spiritual resistance, a
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suppression of the truth they already know deep down, like
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Romans one talks about. Then there's metaphysics.
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What is ultimate reality? Like, Is it just random matter
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or is it created and sustained by a personal God?
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And maybe most importantly, epistemology.
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How do we know anything at all? Presuppositionalism argues that
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only the Christian worldview provides a solid basis for
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knowledge, reason, logic, even science.
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So this view of the unbeliever that the core problem is moral
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and spiritual rebellion, not just intellectual error, that
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really shapes the approach, doesn't it?
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It means just throwing facts or evidences that someone might not
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be enough on its own. Precisely while evidence has its
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place, this view stresses that without the Holy Spirit changing
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the heart, the unbeliever will naturally reinterpret or
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suppress the evidence because their fundamental commitment,
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their presupposition, is opposed to God.
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So the Bible calling unbelief, foolishness, presuppositionalism
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takes that very seriously as part of the apologetic task to
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show the inherent irrationality of rejecting God.
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Yes, it aims to expose the foolishness of non Christian
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thinking, demonstrating how world views built on anything
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other than God ultimately fail to make sense of the world or
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even themselves. Now it's really important to
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clarify this doesn't mean presuppositionalism rejects
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evidence or arguments. That's a common
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misunderstanding. It absolutely has room for
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Christian evidences, the resurrection, fulfilled
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prophecy, archaeological findings, and so on.
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And it uses traditional arguments, but it uses them
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differently. How so?
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It uses them from what it considers a proper foundation.
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The evidence isn't presented as neutral, brute facts that anyone
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should accept regardless of their worldview.
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Instead, evidence is interpreted within the Christian worldview
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and Sean be consistent with it, illustrating its truth and
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explanatory power. The evidence makes the most
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sense, it argues, only when seen through Christian lenses.
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Another really distinctive thing is it's rejection of neutrality,
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right? The idea that you can't just
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sort of take off your Christian hat and argue from some neutral
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common ground with an unbeliever.
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Exactly. It fundamentally rejects that
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possibility or desirability. It points to verses like first
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Peter 3.15. Sanctify Christ as Lord in your
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hearts, always being ready. You can't compartmentalize your
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commitment to Christ when you're defending the faith.
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All thought, it argues, is religiously conditioned by one's
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ultimate commitments. But doesn't that open it up to
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the charge of circular reasoning?
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You know you're assuming God to prove God.
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That charge comes up all the time.
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Presuppositionalists respond by arguing that all world views
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ultimately rest on foundational assumptions or presuppositions.
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They can't be proven from something more basic.
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Everyone starts somewhere. The Christian starts with the
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triune God revealed in Scripture.
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The atheist starts with matter being eternal or human, reason
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being autonomous. The presuppositionalist argues
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that only the Christian starting point provides A coherent
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foundation for anything else. Logic, morality, science,
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meaning. Then it aims to show that the
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non Christian starting points actually lead to absurdity or
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self contradiction. So it's circular in a sense, but
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they argue it's a necessary and virtuous circle because it's the
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only one that actually works. And this leads to that offensive
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aspect we mentioned earlier. It's not just defending, it's
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actively challenging the unbeliever's worldview.
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It involves, as Van Till put it, showing the unbeliever that they
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can only make sense of their own experience, even their own
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ability to argue against Christianity if Christianity is
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actually true. Kind of pulling the rug out from
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under their feet. Sort of.
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Or, like Francis Schaeffer used to talk about taking the roof
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off the unbeliever's intellectual house to show that
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it couldn't withstand the rain and storms of reality.
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For instance, take the problem of evil.
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People often use it against Christianity.
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The presuppositionalist might turn it around and ask on what
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basis in your worldview, say, atheism, can you even call
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something objectively evil? Doesn't the very concept of evil
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imply a standard of good which ultimately points back to God?
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This sounds like a really intellectually demanding
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approach. Who are the main thinkers, the
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key proponents behind presuppositionalism?
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Well, the undeniable pioneer is Cornelius Van Till.
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He taught at Westminster Theological Seminary for
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decades. His writings, like The Defense
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of the Faith, are foundational, but honestly they can be quite
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dense and philosophically challenging to read.
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OK, so maybe not the first place to start for everyone.
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Perhaps not a major student and proponent of van 'til was Greg
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Bonson. Bonson was a brilliant debater
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and writer. His book Always Ready is very
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well known. He gained A reputation,
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especially after his famous debate with atheist Warden Stein
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as the Christian apologist that the atheists feared the most
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because he so effectively dismantled non Christian
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worldviews using this presuppositional method.
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Wow. Another key figure is John
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Frame, also a student of Van Till.
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His book Apologetics to the Glory of God is often
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recommended as perhaps a more accessible entry point into Van
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Till's thought. Frame really emphasizes
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apologetics as applying theology to unbelief.
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OK. Frame might be a good place to.
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Look, and Richard Pratt's little book Every Thought Captive does
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a great job of making Van Till's core ideas understandable and
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practical, even for laypeople or high school students.
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Now, you mentioned misunderstandings earlier.
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What's a common one about presuppositionalism that we
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should probably clear up? The most frequent 1 is probably
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the accusation that it's fiduistic, meaning it's based on
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blind faith, that it's anti reason, that it just tells
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people believe it because the Bible says so and ignores logic
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or philosophy. But that's not accurate.
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Not at all. If you read Van Till, Bonson or
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Frame, you find incredibly detailed, rigorous analysis of
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philosophy, logic and competing world views.
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They engage deeply with reason. What they distinguish between is
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being rational using the God-given faculty of reason
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correctly, and rationalism with a capital R.
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What's the difference? Rationalism is the philosophical
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stance that makes human reason the ultimate authority, the
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final judge of all truth, even above God or his revelation.
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Presuppositionalism rejects that, arguing that human reason
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itself only functions properly when it submits to God's
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revelation. It's pro reason, but anti
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autonomy of reason. Reason is a tool, a gift, not
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the ultimate standard. OK, that clarifies a lot about
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presuppositionalism. Now maybe let's zoom out.
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Again, we focused on one method. But how has apologetics as a
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whole developed over the long sweep of church history?
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It must have faced different challenges in different eras.
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Oh, absolutely. It's constantly adapted.
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If you go back to the early church, the first few centuries
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AD, Christians were in a very challenging spot.
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They were a minority, often persecuted, living in a very
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pluralistic Roman Empire. They faced opposition from
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several directions. Well, from Judaism, the charge
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was blasphemy, worshipping a mere man, Jesus as God.
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From the Roman authorities, they were often seen as disloyal,
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even atheists, because they wouldn't worship the emperor or
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the traditional Pagan gods that they seemed like
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revolutionaries. And from the intellectuals.
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From the dominant Greek philosophies like Platonism,
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Christianity could seem crude or anti intellectual.
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Ideas like the creation of the world out of nothing, or
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especially the physical resurrection of the body, were
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considered absurd because Greek thought often saw matter as
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inferior or even evil compared to the spiritual.
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Realm and internal challenges too, right?
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Like Gnosticism? Yes, huge internal battles
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against various Gnostic groups who denied the goodness of
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creation or the true humanity of Christ, claiming he only
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appeared to be physical. So who are some of the key
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figures who stepped up to defend the face in that hostile
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environment? You had figures like Justin
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Martyr in the 2nd century, he argued against paganism and
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Gnosticism, defended the resurrection, argued Jesus was
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the Messiah foretold in the Old Testament, and tried to show
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that Christianity was the true philosophy that Greek thought
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was groping towards. Irenaeus, also 2nd century.
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It was crucial in refuting Gnosticism, strongly affirming
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the goodness of the physical creation and the real
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incarnation and bodily resurrection of Jesus.
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Tertullian, a bit later, was a fiery North African writer who
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engaged Pagan culture but was famously skeptical about
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borrowing too much from Greek philosophy.
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What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?
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Was his famous lion? Clement of Alexandria, on the
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other hand, took a more positive view, seeing truths in Pagan
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philosophy as stemming from God's general revelation, though
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he insisted Christian revelation was superior and complete.
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And then towering over the later patristic period, you have
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Augustine of Hippo. His influence is just immense.
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What were some of his key contributions to apologetics?
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Well, he developed a strong linear view of history guided by
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God's purposes, contrasting with the cyclical views common.
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Then he powerfully defended Criacio ex nihilo creation out
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of nothing, against ideas that God shaped pre-existing matter.
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He used the teleological argument design points to a
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designer. And crucially, he gave us that
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epistemological principle credo utintelagum.
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I believe in order that I may understand.
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Faith comes first in knowing God.
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Then reason explores and understands what faith receives.
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Reason is vital, but it doesn't start from a neutral point when
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it comes to God. Faith seeking understanding.
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Exactly. He also developed the free will
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theodicy, arguing that evil originates in the wrong choices
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of creatures, not in God. OK, moving forward into the
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medieval period, this is where we see some of those arguments
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we discussed earlier really get systematically developed, right?
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Yes, the Scholastic period saw major efforts to systematize
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theology and philosophy, and some of Canterbury, building on
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Augustine's faith seeking understanding, famously
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developed the ontological argument, trying to prove God
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from the very idea of God. The a priori 1.
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That's the 1:00 and then, of course, Thomas Aquinas.
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Aquinas is really the anchor figure for much of what became
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the classical and evidential approaches.
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Later on, he undertook the massive task of synthesizing
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Christian theology with Aristotelian philosophy, which
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was being rediscovered in the West.
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And his five ways. Yes, his Famous Five Ways or
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Five Proofs for God's Existence, which are essentially
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sophisticated versions of the Cosmo logical and teleological
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arguments. Aquinas believed reason could
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demonstrate God's existence and many of his attributes, and that
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faith and reason work together harmoniously.
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He held a somewhat more optimistic view than Augustine
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or later Reformers about the ability of the human mind, even
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after the fall, to grasp truths about God through natural reason
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alone. This sometimes leads to
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discussions about whether he promoted a kind of neutrality in
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reasoning that Calvinists would later critique.
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Which brings us to the Reformation and the modern
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period. How did things shift then?
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Obviously a huge emphasis on Scripture, but how did that
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impact apologetics? Hugely.
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John Calvin, for instance, strongly emphasized the census
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divinitatus, that innate awareness or sense of God that
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every single person has because they're made in God's image and
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live in God's world. Romans 1 is key here.
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General revelation is clear sin, but sin, human depravity,
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profoundly effects our minds and hearts.
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Calvin's stress that we suppress this knowledge, we twist it, we
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turn to idolatry. So while the knowledge is there,
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it doesn't lead to salvation. For that you need special
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revelation, the Bible and the internal testimony, the
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illuminating work of the Holy Spirit to open blind eyes and
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soften hard hearts. So general revelation shows God
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exists, but special revelation and the Spirit are needed for
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salvation. Exactly.
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And another absolutely critical idea from Calvin, especially for
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presuppositionalism, is the comprehensiveness of revelation,
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meaning that all of creation, every a single fact, reflects
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God's glory and testifies to him.
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It's not just arguments from cause or design, the laws of
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logic, the beauty of mathematics, the structure of
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language, human consciousness, morality.
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Everything, Calvin argued is revelational of God.
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So all facts are God's facts. Precisely which means, in
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principle, apologetics can appeal to any aspect of reality
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as evidence for God, because all reality depends on Him and
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reflects Him. It vastly broadens the scope
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beyond just a few traditional arguments.
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Fascinating. And moving into the modern era,
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we see figures responding to new challenges, like the
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Enlightenment's focus on reason and later skepticism.
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We already talked about Pascal and his wager, trying to reach
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people in that emerging rationalistic age.
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Who else stands out? Well, Bishop Joseph Butler was
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very important in the 18th century.
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He wrote a famous work, The Analogy of Religion, defending
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Christianity against Deism. We mentioned Deism, the absentee
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landlord God. Right.
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Deus accepted a creator based on reason and nature, but rejected
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miracles, prophecy, the specific claims of the Bible, and an
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intervening God. Butler argued that the same
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difficulties Dias found in revealed religion could also be
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found in nature itself, undermining their attempt to
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separate the two. His work again highlights that
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just proving a designer doesn't equate to proving the God of
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Christianity. And William Paley's watch
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analogy came later, right? Still fighting that battle.
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Yes, Paley was later responding partly to Hume's skepticism.
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He gave that classic, clear defense of the design argument.
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Then you had Thomas Reed, a Scottish philosopher who founded
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Common Sense Realism. He was reacting directly against
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the radical skepticism of David Hume, who had questioned our
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ability to know things like cause and effect or the external
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world with certainty. Hume was pretty corrosive to
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certainty. Very Reed argued that certain
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beliefs like the existence of the self, the external world,
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cause and effect are properly basic beliefs grounded in our
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common sense, and that Hume skepticism was actually
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unlivable and self defeating. Then things get stranger with
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your. Sir and Kierkegaard is often
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called the father of existentialism, and he
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represents a move towards FIDE ISM, emphasizing a leap of
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faith. For Kierkegaard, faith wasn't
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about rational probability, but a passionate, subjective
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commitment in the face of uncertainty, even absurdity.
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Many apologists see this sharp separation of faith and reason
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as deeply problematic. And closer to our time, Gordon
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Clark, another presuppositionalist.
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Yes, Gordon Clark was an American philosopher and
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theologian in the presuppositionalist vein, though
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with some differences from fentil.
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Clark strongly emphasized the internal consistency of the
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Christian worldview derived from Scripture as the primary test of
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truth. He argued that only Christianity
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is logically coherent and that all other worldviews collapse
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into contradiction. He too, rejected the traditional
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proofs for God as independent arguments and focused on showing
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Christianity as the only possible ground for
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intelligibility. Wow.
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OK, that's quite a tour through history, from the early church
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facing paganism through the medieval synthesis.
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The Reformations focus on scripture and sin, battling
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deism and skepticism in the Enlightenment, and up to modern
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philosophical approaches like presuppositional ISM.
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It really underscores that Christian apologetics isn't some
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dusty, outdated thing. It's a living, breathing
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discipline that is constantly engaged with the questions and
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challenges of every era and see how these arguments and methods
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developed. Understanding the context well,
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hopefully it can strengthen your own understanding and maybe make
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you feel a bit more equipped to give a reason for the hope that
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is in you. As Peter says, it helps you see
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how Christian truth really does provide a coherent foundation
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for everything. And maybe as a final thought to
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take away from all this, if Calvin and the
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presuppositionalists are right that all facts are God's facts,
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that all creation reveals Him, consider this as you go about
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your week. What ordinary thing, maybe
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something you see in nature, an interaction you have, a logical
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thought process you use, even a deep question someone asks?
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What everyday thing might you encounter that, if you look at
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it through the lens of a Christian worldview, suddenly
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points you back to God's presence?
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His truth is reality. How might seeing the world that
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way change your perspective and maybe even your readiness to
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talk about your faith? Something to think about.