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HYDRAULICS. · Inventions of the Century

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  Section twelve of Inventions in the Century. This is a Livervox recording. All
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  LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer plays,
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  visit livervox dot org. Inventions in the Century by William Henry Doolittle.
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  Hydraulics. The science of hydraulics appears to be as old as the thirst of
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  man. When prehistoric men had only stone implements with which to do their work,
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  they built aqueducts, reservoirs, and deep wells, which rival and extent
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  many great similar works that are the boast of their modern descendants. Modern inventors
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  have also produced, with the flourish, nice instrumentalities for raising water agencies,
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  which are covered with the moss of untold centuries. In China, it was
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  more than an ancient observation that came down to Bline Us time for record that
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  water would rise to a level with its source. The observation, however,
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  was put into practical use in his time and long before, without a knowledge
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  of its philosophical cause. Nothing in the Egyptian sculpture portraying the arts in vogue
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  around the cradle of the human rays is older than the long lever rocking upon
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  a cleft stick. One arm of the lever carrying a bracket in the other
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  arm used to raise a bucket from a well. Forty centuries and more have
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  not rendered this device obsolete. Among other machines of the Egyptians, the Carthaginians,
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  the Greeks, and the Romans, the raising water was the tympanum,
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  a drum shaped wheel divided into radio petitions chambers of pockets, which were opened
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  to a short depth on the proper rear of the wheel and inclined to it,
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  the axis at which was driven by animal un annual power. These pockets
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  it scooped up the water from the stream or pond in which the wheel was
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  located as the wheel revolved and directed toward the axis of the wheel, where
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  it ran out into troughs, pipes or gutters. The narraya, a chain
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  of pots, and the screw of Archimedes were other forms of ancient pumps.
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  The bucket pumps, with some modifications, areknown in modern times as scoop wheels,
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  and have been used extensively in the drainage of lands, especially by the
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  Dutch or at first drove them by windmills and later by steam. The division
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  of water wheels into overshot, undershot and breast wheels is not a modern system.
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  In the Noumatics of Hero, which compilation of inventions appeared in two twenty
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  five BC, seventy nine illustrations are given and described of simple machines, between
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  sixty and seventy of which are utraulic devices. Among these are siphon pumps,
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  the force pump of Ceredivious, a fire pump having two cylinders and two pistons,
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  vowels and levers. We have in a previous chapter referred to hero steam
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  engine. The fact that a vacuum may be created in a pump into which
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  water will rise by atmospheric pressure appears to have been availed of, but not
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  explained or understood. The employment of the rope, pulley and windlass to raise
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  water was known to Hero and his countrymen, as well as by the Chinese
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  before them. The chain pump and other pumps of simple form have only been
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  improved since Hero's day. In matters of detail, the screw of archimittees has
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  been extended in application as a carrier of water and converted into a conveyor of
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  many other materials. Thus, aqueducts, reservoirs, water wheels used for grinding
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  grape. Simple forms of pumps, fountains, hydraulic organs, and a few
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  other hydraulic devices were known to ancient peoples, but their limited knowledge of the
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  laws of nomadics and their little mechanical skill prevented but general progress or extensive general
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  use of such inventions. It is said that Fronterness, a Roman consul an
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  inspector of public fountains and aqueducts in the rain of Nerva and Trajan, and
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  a roote of book the Aquitubidous Irvis Romano Comontarius, describing the Great aqueducts of
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  Rome, was the first and the last of the ancients to attempt a scientific
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  investigation of the motions of liquids. And fifteen ninety three Servia of Frenchmen born
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  in Leon invented the rotary pump, and this the pistons consisting of two cog
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  wheels, their leaves intermeshing and rotated in in an elliptical shaped chamber. The
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  water entered the chamber from a lower pipe, and the action of the wheels
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  with such as to carry the water around the chamber and force it out through
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  an opposite upper pipe. Subsequent changes involved the rotating of the cylinder instead of
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  the wheels, and many modifications in the form of the wheels. The same
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  principle was subsequently adopted and wrote to Esteam Engines in fifteen eighty six, a
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  few years before the invention of servia. Stephanus, the great engineer of the
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  dykes of Holland, wrote learnedly on the principles of statics and hydrostatics, and
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  Wellwell states that his treatment of the subject embraces most of the elementary science of
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  hydraulics and hydrostatics of the present day. This was followed by the investigations and
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  treatises of Galileo his pupil Torricelli, and discovered the law of air pressure,
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  the great French genius Pascal and Sir Isaac Newton in the seventeenth century, and
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  Daniel Bernoulli de le pat Euler, the great German mathematician and inventor of the
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  centrifugal pump, the avic of Soot, Venturi Alwine, and others in the
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  eighteenth century. It was not until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that mankind departed
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  much, when the practice of supplying their towns and cities with water from distant
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  springs, rivers and lakes by pipes and aqueducts, and resorted to water distribution
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  systems from towers and elevated reservoirs. Certain cities in Germany and France were the
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  first to do this, followed in the eighteenth century by England. This seemed
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  strange as to England, as in fifteen eighty two one Peter Maurice, a
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  Dutch engineer, erected at London on the Old Arch Bridge across the Thames a
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  series of forcing pumps worked by undershot wheel placed in the current of the river,
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  by which he forced to supply of water to the uppermost rooms of lofty
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  buildings adjacent to the bridge. Before the inventions of newcombent and want in the
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  latter part of the eighteenth century of steam pumps, the lifting force pumps were
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  operated by wheels in currents, by horses and sometimes by the force of currents
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  of common sewers. When the waters of rivers adjacent to towns and cities thus
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  began to be pumped, but drinking purposes, strainers and filters of various kinds
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  were invented of necessity the first ones of which there is any printed record,
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  made their appearance in seventeen seventy six. After the principles of hydraulics had thus
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  been reviewed in discussed by the philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and
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  applied to the extent indicated for the application of them was made and especially for
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  the propelling of vessels. In seventeen eighteen, the Hire revived and improved the
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  double acting pump achrestidious, but to what extent he put it into use does
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  not appear. However, it was the double acting pump, having two chambers
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  and two valves, and in which the piston acted to throw the water out
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  at each stroke. In seventeen thirty, doctor John Allen of England designed a
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  vessel having a tunnel of pipe open at the stern thereof through which water was
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  to be pumped into the air or sea, the reaction thus occasioned driving the
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  vessel forward. He put such a vessel at work in a canal, working
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  the pumps by manual labor, and suggested the employment of a steam engine.
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  A vessel of this kind was patented by David Ramsey of England in seventeen thirty
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  eight. Romsey of America in seventeen eighty two also invented a similar vessel,
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  built one fifty five long, and ran it experimentally on the Potomac River.
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  Doctor Franklin also planned a boat of this kind in seventeen eighty five and illustrated
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  the same by sketches. His plan has since been tried on the Shelt,
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  but two turbines were substituted for a simple voice bump for the menu will be
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  made later on of a few more elaborate inventions of this kind. It also
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  having been discovered that the fall of a column of water in a tube would
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  cause a portion of it to rise higher than its source by reason of the
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  force of momentum, a machine was devised by which successive impulses of this force
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  were used, in combination with atmospheric pressure, to raise a portion of the
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  water at each impulse. This was the well known ram and the first inventor
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  such a machine was John Whitterest of cheap Skide, England, who constructed one
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  in seventeen seventy two. From a reservoir spring or cistern of water, the
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  water was discharged downward into a long pipe of small diameter and from thence into
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  a shore the pipe governed by a stop clock. On the opening of the
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  stop clock, the water was given a quick momentum, and on closing the
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  water was forced with a continuing momentum threw another pipe into an air chamber.
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  A valve in the latter mentioned pipe opened into the air chamber. The air
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  pressure served to overcome the momentum in to close the chamber, and at the
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  same time forced the water received into the air chamber up an adjacent pipe.
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  Another impulse was obtained in another injection of water into the chamber by again opening
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  the stop clock, and thus by successive impulses, water was forced into the
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  chamber and pressed by the air up through the discharge pipe, and then threw
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  a bolding or other receptacle. But the fact that the stop valve had to
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  be opened and close by hand to obtain the desired number of lifts rented the
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  machine ineffective. In seventeen ninety six, Mongold Fear, a Frenchman and one
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  of the inventors of the balloon, substituted for the stop call to the Whitehurst
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  machine a loose impulse valve in the waste pipe, whereby the valve was raised
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  by the rush of water made to set itself, checked the outflaw, and
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  turn the current into the air chamber. This simple alteration changed the character of
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  the machine entirely when did it automatic in action, and converted it into a
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  highly successful water raising machine. For this invention on gold fire obtained a gold
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  metal from the Frontick's position in eighteen o two. Where a head can be
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  had ten four to six feet, water can be raised to the height of
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  thirty feet. Bodies of water greater in amount then is desired to be raised
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  can thus be utilized, and this simple machine has come into very extensive use
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  during the present century. Allusion was made in the last chapter to the powerful
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  hydraulic press of Joseph Branna, invented in seventeen ninety five to eighteen hundred,
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  its practical introduction in this century, and improvements therein of others. After the
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  great improvements in the steam engine made by want, water, steam and air
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  pressure joined their forces on the threshold of this century to lift and move the
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  world as it had never been bowed before. The strong hands of hydraulics are
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  pumps. They are divided into classes by names indicating their purpose. And mode
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  of operation such as single, double acting lift or force reciprocating a rotary,
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  et cetera. Night in a celebrated mechanical diction and enumerates one hundred differently constructed
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  pumps connected with the various arts in a broadery numeration. Under the end of
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  hydraulic engineering and engineering devices, he gives a list of over six hundred species.
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  The number has since increased. About nine tenths of these contrivances have been
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  invented during the nineteenth century, although the philosophical principles of the operation of most
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  of them had been previously discovered. The important epics in the invention of pumps
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  ending with the eighteenth century, with thus the single acting pump of Cbs two
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  twenty five d c. The double acting of lahere In seventeen eighteen, the
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  hydraulic ram of Whitehurst seventeen seventy two, and the hydraulic press of Brahma of
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  seventeen ninety five to eighteen o two. Brahma's press illustrates other theories of onei
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  age are often lie dormant, but if true, become the practices of a
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  succeeding age. Pascal one hundred fifty years before Broader's time, had written this
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  seeming hydraulic paradox. If a vessel closed on all sides has two openings,
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  the one a hundred times as large as the other, and if each be
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  supplied with a piston which fits it exactly, then a man pushing the small
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  piston will equilibrate that of one hundred men pushing the piston which is one hundred
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  times as large, and will overcome the other ninety nine. This is the
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  law of the hydraulic press, that intensity of pressure is everywhere the same.
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  The next important epoch was the invention of fomion in eighteen twenty three of the
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  water wheel, known as the turbine and also as the vortex wheel. If
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  we will return a moment to the little steam ende that the ancient europe of
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  Alexandria called the ear by light, it will be remembered that the steam admitted
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  into a pivoted vessel and out of it through little opposite pipes, having bent
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  exits turned in contrary directions, caused the vessel to rotate, a reason of
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  the reaction of the steam against the pipes. In what is called Barker's mill
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  brought out in the eighteenth century. Substantially, the same form of engine is
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  seen with water substitute for the steam. A turbine is a wheel, usually
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  placed horizontally to the water. The wheel is provided with curved internal buckets against
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  which the water is led by outer curved passages. The guides in the buckets
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  both curved in such manner that the water shall enter the wheel as nearly as
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  possible without shock, and lave it with the least possible velocity, thereby utilizing
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  the greatest possible amount of energy. In the chapter on Electrical Inventions, reference
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  is made to the mighty power of Niagara, used to actuate a great number
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  of electrical and other machines of vast power. This utilization had long been the
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  dream of engineers. Sir William Siemens had said that the power of all the
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  coal raised in the world would barely represent the power of Niagara. The dream
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  has been realized, and the turbine is the apparatus through which the power of
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  the harnessed giant is transmitted. A canal is stuck from the river a mile
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  above the falls. It conducts water to a powerhouse near the falls. At
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  the powerhouse, the canal is furnished with the gate and with cribs to keep
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  back the obstructions such as sticks. At the gate has placed a vertical iron
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  tube called a pen stalk, seven and one half feet in diameter and one
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  hundred sixty feet deep. At the bottom of the pen stalk is placed a
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  turbine wheel fixed on a shaft, and to which shaft is connected in an
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  electric generator or other power machine. On opening the gate, a mass of
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  water seven and one half feet in diameter falls upon the turbine wheel one hundred
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  sixty feet below. The water rushing through the wheel turns it and its shaft
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  many hundred revolutions a minute. All the machinery is of enormous power and dimensions.
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  When electric generated, there is eleven feet seven inches in diameter and spins
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  around at the rate of two hundred fifty revolutions a minute. Means are provided
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  by which the speed of each wheel is regulated automatically. Each turbine in a
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  pen stalk represents the power of five thousand horses, and there are now tennel
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  more employed. After the water has done its work on the wheels, it
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  falls into a tunnel and is carried back to the river below. The falls.
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  Not only are the manufactures of various kinds of a large town at the
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  falls thus supplied with power, but electric power is transmitted to distant towns and
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  cities. Turbine pumps are the Furian type have an outward flow, but another
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  form invented also by a Frenchman John Vaugh, has a downward discharge, and
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  others are oblique double combined turbine, rotary and centrifugal, embodying similar principles.
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  The term rotary broadly speaking includes turbine and centrifugal pumps. The centrifugal pump,
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  invented by Yeler in seventeen fifty four, was taken up in the nineteenth center
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  and greatly improved. In the centrifugal pump. Of the ordinary form, the
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  water is received at the center of the wheel and diverted and carried out in
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  an upward direction, but in most of its modern forms derived from the turbine,
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  vincival is adopted to so shaping the veins that the water striking them in
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  the curved direction shall not have its line of curvature suddenly changed. Among modern
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  inventions of this class of pumps was the Massachusetts of eighteen eighteen and McCarty's in
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  eighteen thirty of America, that of some contemporary French engineers, and subsequently in
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  France the Appole system, which latter was brought into prominent notice that the London
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  Exposition of eighteen fifty one improvements of great value were also made by Professor James
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  Thompson of England. Centrifugal pumps have been used with great success in lifting large
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  bodies of water to a moderate height and for draining marshes and other low lands.
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  Holland, Germany, France, England and America have, through some of
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  the ablest hydraulic engineers and inventors, produced most remarkable results. In these viewsvarious
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  forms of pumps. We have noted what has been done at Niagara with the
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  turbines, and the drainage of the marshes of Italy, the lowlands of Holland,
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  the fens of England, and the swamps of Florida bear evidence of the
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  value of Kindred inventions. That modern form of pump, known as the injector,
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  has many uses in the arts and manufactures. One of its most useful
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  functions is to automatically supply steam boilers with water and regulate the supply. It
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  was the invention of Giffd, patented in England in eighteen fifty eight, and
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  consists of a steam pipe leading from boiler and having its nozzle projecting into an
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  annular space which communicates with the feed pipe from a water supply. A jett
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  of steam is discharged with force into this space, producing a vacuum into which
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  the water from the feed pipe rushes, and the condensed steam and water are
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  driven by the momentum of the jets into a pipe leading into the boiler.
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  This exceedingly useful apparatus has been approved and universally used wherever steam boilers are found.
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  The idea of ejecting a stream of steam or water to create or increase
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  the flow of another stream has been applied in intensifiers to increase the pressure of
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  water in hydraulic mains, pipes and machines by additional pressure energy. Thus,
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  the water from an ordinary main may be given such an increased pressure that a
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  jet from a hydrant may be carried to the tops of high houses in connection
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  with pumping. It may be said that a great deal has been discovered and
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  invented during this century concerning the force and utilization of jets of water and the
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  force of water flowing through orifices. In the art of mining, a new
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  system called hydrolytizing has been introduced, by which dreds of order at high pressure
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  have been directed against banks and hills which have crumbled, been washed away,
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  and made to reveal any precious ore they have concealed. To assist this operation,
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  flexible nozzles have been invented which permit the stream to be easily turned in
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  any decided direction. Returning to the idea of raising weights by hydraulic pressure,
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  mention must be made of the recent inventure of the hydraulic jack, a port
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  of a machine for raising loads, and which has displaced the older and less
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  efficient screw jack, as an example of the practical utility of the hydraulic jack.
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  About a half century ago it required the aid of four hundred and eighty
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  men working at Capstans to raise the Luxe Obelisk in Paris, whilst within thirty
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  years thereafter, Cleopatra's Needle, a heavier monument, was raised to its present
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  position on the Thames and Bankment by four men each working one hydraulic jack.
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  By the high pressures or stresses given by the hydraulic press. It was learned
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  that cold metals have plasticity and can be moulded or stretched like other plastic bodies.
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  Thus, in one modification, a machine is had for making lead pipes.
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  A container is filled with molten lead and that allowed to cool. The
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  container is then forced by the pump against an elongated dye of the sides of
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  the pipe required a pressure from one to two tons of persquid inch is exerted,
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  the lead is forced up through the dye and the pipe comes out completed.
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  Wrought iron and col steel can be forced, like wax, into different
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  forms, and a rot of steel may be drawn through a dye to form
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  a piano wire. By another modification of the hydraulic press, pipes and cables
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  are covered with the colting of lead to prevent eutyaging from rost and other clauses.
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  Not only are cotton and other bulky materials pressed into small compass four hydraulic
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  machines, but very audible oils are pressed from cotton seed and from other materials,
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  the seed being first softened, then made into cakes, and the cakes
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  pressed. If it is desired to line tunnels or other channels with the metal
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  lining, shield or casing large segments of iron to compose the casing of wooden
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  position, and as fast as the tunnel is excavated, the casing is pressed
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  forward, and when the digging is done, the cast iron tunnel is complete.
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  If the iron hoops and greet casks are to be tightened, the cask
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  is set on a plate of by hydraulic press, the hoops connected to a
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  series of steel arms projecting from an overhanging support, and the cask is pressed
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  upward until the proper degree of tightness is secured. And the application of hydraulic
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  power to machine tools great advances have been made and has become a system in
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  which Twettle of England was a pioneer. The great force of water pressure,
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  combined with comparatively slow motion, constitutes the basis of the system. Sir William
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  Fairbairn had done with steam, would Twetle and others accomplished with water. Thus,
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  the enormous force of men in the fearful clatter formerly displayed in these huge
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  works where the riveting of boilers was carried on, can now be dispensed with,
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  and in place of that noisy hammer and its ceaseless blows has come the
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  steam with a hydraulic ribbeting machine, which noiselessly drives the rivet through any thickness
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  of metal, clinches the same and smooths the jointed plate. The forging and
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  the rolling of the plates are performed by the same means. William George Armstrong
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  of England, after with Sir William Herstal, lawyer, but with the strongest
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  bearing toward mechanical subjects, performed a great work in the advancement of hydraulic engineering.
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  It is claimed that he did for hydraulic machinery and the storage and transmission
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  of power thereby what Walk did for the steam engine and Bessemer did for steel.
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  In eighteen thirty eight he produced his first invention, an important improvement in
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  the hydraulic engine. In eighteen forty, in a letter to the Mechanics Magazine,
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  he caused attention to the advantages of water as a mechanical agent and a
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  reservoir of power, and show how water pumped to an elevated reservoir by a
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  steam engine might have the potential energy thus stored utilized in many advantageous ways.
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  How for instance, a small engine pumping continuously could thus supply many large engines
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  working intermittently. An illustration of this idea. He invented a crane which was
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  erected on Newcastle Key in eighteen forty six. Another was constructed on the Albert
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  Dock at Liverpool, and others at other places. These cranes, adapted for
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  the lifting and carrying of enormous loads, were worked by hydraulic pressure obtained from
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  elevated tanks or reservoirs as above indicated. But as the substitute for such tanks
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  of reservoirs, he invented the accumulator. This consists of a large cast iron
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  cylinder fitted with a plunger which is made to work water tight within by means
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  of suitable packing. To this plunger is attached a weighted case filled with one
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  or many tons of metal or other coarse material. Water is pumped into the
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  cylinder until the plunger is raised to its full height within the cylinder, when
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  the supply of water is cut off by the automatic operation of a valve,
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  when the cranes or other apparatus to be worked thereby our operation, Water is
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  passed from the cylinder through a small pipe which actuates the crane through hydraulic pressure.
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  This pressure, of course, decomets upon the weight of the plunger.
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  Thus the pressure up from five hundred to one thousand pounds per square inch may
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  be obtained. The descending plunger maintains a constant pressure upon the water, and
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  the water is only pumped into the cylinder when it is required to be filled
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  with sensitive accumulators of this character, Hydraulic machinery is much used on board ships
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  for steering them and for loading, discharging, and storing cargoes. Water pressure
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  engines or water motors, of a great variety as to useful details, have
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  been invented to take advantage of a natural head of water from falls wherever it
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  exists, or from artificial accumulators, or from street mains. They resemble steam
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  engines in that the water under pressure drives a piston in a cylinder, somewhat
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  in the manner of steam. The underlying principle of this class of machinery is
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  the admission of water under pressure to a cylinder, which moves the piston and
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  is allowed to escape on the completion of the stroke. They are divided into
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  true grate classes, single and double acting engines. Accordingly, if the water
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  is admitted to one side of the piston only, or to both sides alternately.
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  Both kinds are provided with a regulator in the form of a turn,
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  clock weight, or spring valve, to regulate and control the flow of water
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  and to make it continuous. They are used for furnishing a limited amount of
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  power, for working small printing presses, dental engines, organs, sewing machines,
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  and for many other purposes where a light motor is desired. The nineteenth
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  century has seen a revolution, and baths and a company in closets. However
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  useful, luxurious, and magnificent may have been the patrician paths of ancient Rome,
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  that system, which modern investigators have found to be so complete to a
• 30:11
  certain extent, was not, nor ever has been, in the possession of
• 30:17
  the poor. It is within the memory of many now living everywhere, how
• 30:22
  wretched was the sanitary accommodations in every populous place a generation or two ago.
• 30:29
  Now, with the modern water distribution systems and cheap bathing apparatuses which can be
• 30:34
  brought to the homes of all with plunger, valved siphon and valved and washed
• 30:41
  are closets, air valve, liquid seal pipe inlet and valve sealed traps,
• 30:48
  and with the flushing and other hydraulic cleaning systems for drains and zestpools, little
• 30:53
  excuse can be had but want of proper sanitary regulations in any intelligent community.
• 31:00
  The result of the adoption of these modern improvements in this direction on the health
• 31:06
  of the people has been to banish plagues, curtail epidemics, and prolong for
• 31:11
  years the average duration of human life. How multiplied are the uses to which
• 31:17
  water is put and how completely it is being subjected to the use of man
• 31:22
  Rivers and pipes have their meters, so that now the velocity and volume of
• 31:26
  rivers and streams are measured and controlled, and floods prevented. The supplies for
• 31:33
  cities and for families are estimated, measured and recorded as easily as the supplies
• 31:38
  of illuminating gas or the flow of food from elevators. Among the mine of
• 31:45
  a very useful inventions are water scoops for picking up water for a drain while
• 31:49
  emotion consisting of a curved open pipe on a car, the mouth of which
• 31:55
  strikes the current of water in an open trough between the tracks and picks up
• 32:00
  and deposits in a minute a car load of water for the engine nozzles to
• 32:06
  emit jets of great velocity and ball nozzles terminating at a copy which a wall
• 32:10
  is loosely seated, and which has the effect as it is lifted by the
• 32:15
  jet to spread it into an umbrella shaped spray. As a great value of
• 32:20
  fires and quenching flame and smoke next to pure air to breathe, we need
• 32:25
  pure water to drink and bought in. Discoveries and inventions have done and are
• 32:30
  doing much to help us to both pasteur and others have discovered and explain the
• 32:36
  germ theory of disease and to what extent it is due to impure water.
• 32:40
  Inventors have reduced filters, and there is a large class of that character which
• 32:45
  render the water pure as it enters the dwelling and fit for all domestic purposes.
• 32:52
  A specimen of the latter class is one which is attached to the main
• 32:55
  service pipe as it enters from the strait. The water is first let into
• 33:00
  a cylinder stored with coarse filtering material, which clears the water of mud,
• 33:06
  sediment and coarse impurities, and then is conducted into a second cylinder provided with
• 33:12
  the mass of fine grained or powdered charcoal or some other material which has the
• 33:17
  quality of not only arresting all remaining injurious ingredients, but destroys organisms, neutralizes
• 33:25
  ammonia and other de literious material. From hence the water is returned to the
• 33:31
  service by and distributed throughout the house. The filter may be thoroughly cleansed by
• 33:37
  reversing the movement of the water and carrying it off through a drain by mantilibance
• 33:42
  clearing sweet whereupon the water is turned in its normal course to the filter and
• 33:47
  house. And a very recent report of General J. M. Wilson,
• 33:53
  Chief of Engineers, USA, the subject of filtration of water and especially public
• 34:00
  water supplies in England, the United States, and on the continent is very
• 34:05
  thoroughly treated, and the conclusion arrived at there is that the system turned the
• 34:09
  American or mechanical system is the most successful one. This consists first in leading
• 34:16
  the water into one or more reservoirs, then coagulating suspended matter in the water
• 34:22
  by the use of the sulfate of alumina, and then allowing the water to
• 34:27
  throw through a body of course sand, by which the coagulated illuminate mattered is
• 34:32
  caught and held in the interstices of the sand, and the bacteria arrested.
• 34:38
  All objectionable matter is thus arrested by the surface portion of the sand body,
• 34:44
  which portion is from time to time scraped off, and the whole sand mass
• 34:49
  occasionally washed out by upward currents of water forced through the same. By this
• 34:54
  system, great rapidity of filtration is obtained, the rate being one hundred twenty
• 35:00
  million gallons a day per acre. The English system contains more in the use
• 35:06
  of extended and successive reservoirs or beds of sand alone or aided by the use
• 35:12
  of the celtate. This also is extensively used in many large cities and of
• 35:20
  Section twelve.