Latest / The Occult Rejects / The Rhythms of Consciousness: Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma

Transcript

The Rhythms of Consciousness: Delta, Theta, Alpha, Beta, and Gamma · The Occult Rejects

0:02
Speaker 1: You see, something's going to happen. What's going to happen?
0:15
Speaker 1: What I help? Welcome back to the occult rejects.
0:27
Speaker 2: Today we're stepping into one of the strangest territories in
0:29
Speaker 2: all of human experience. The rhythms of the mind itself.
0:34
Speaker 2: Not thoughts, not beliefs, not even consciousness in the abstract,
0:38
Speaker 2: but the measurable timing patterns at accompany waking, sleeping, dreaming, remembering, focus, drifting,
0:46
Speaker 2: and descending into those unstable thresholds where the ordinary self
0:49
Speaker 2: of sense begins to loosen. In modern neuroscience, those patterns
0:54
Speaker 2: are tracked through neural oscillations and scalp recorded electro encephialography EEG,
1:00
Speaker 2: where large populations of neurons fire and rhythmic coordination that
1:04
Speaker 2: can be grouped roughly into what we call delta, theta, alpha, beta.
1:11
Speaker 1: And gamma activity.
1:14
Speaker 2: Most people encount those terms in the flattened language of
1:16
Speaker 2: Internet charts Delta for sleep, theta for trance, alpha for relaxation,
1:22
Speaker 2: beta for thinking, gamma for higher consciousness. But the real
1:26
Speaker 2: story is much more interesting than that. The brain does
1:29
Speaker 2: not sit in one single frequency mode like a machine
1:32
Speaker 2: set to one dial. Multiple rhythms coexist at once, and
1:36
Speaker 2: what matters is not only which oscillation is present, but
1:40
Speaker 2: where it is expressed, how strongly it appears, what other
1:43
Speaker 2: rhythms it is interacting with, and what state the organism
1:47
Speaker 2: is in as a whole. In other words, brain waves
1:50
Speaker 2: are not little spiritual badges pinned to mental states. They
1:54
Speaker 2: are dynamic timing structures embedded in attention, memory, sensory processing, mortar, reddiness, vigilance, sleep,
2:02
Speaker 2: and the changing architecture of awareness itself. And that matters
2:06
Speaker 2: because consciousness is not static, it is state dependent. It
2:10
Speaker 2: rises and falls with arousal, with circadia pressure, with fatigue,
2:14
Speaker 2: with sensory demand, with emotional salience, with memory load, and
2:19
Speaker 2: with the descent into sleep. Modern sleep science makes this
2:23
Speaker 2: especially clear, but a highly organized alternation between non rem
2:27
Speaker 2: and REM states, cycling across the nite and repeating ultradean patterns.
2:31
Speaker 2: Deep sleep has one kind of rhythmic organization, light sleep
2:35
Speaker 2: has another, and REM has another. The sleeping brain is
2:38
Speaker 2: not silent. It is active, structured, and metabolically consequential, and
2:42
Speaker 2: when sleep is impaired, memory, attention, and cognitive stability suffer
2:47
Speaker 2: in measurable ways. That is one of the deepest themes
2:50
Speaker 2: running underneath this whole episode. The rhythms of the brain
2:54
Speaker 2: are not decorative. They are bound up with what the
2:57
Speaker 2: mind can and cannot do. Oscillatory activity has been linked
3:01
Speaker 2: to selective attention, working memory, perception, behavioral timing, and the
3:06
Speaker 2: coordination of distributed neural systems. In some cases, the strongest
3:10
Speaker 2: scientific question is not even what information the brain contains,
3:14
Speaker 2: but how timing helps organize that information, how faster and
3:18
Speaker 2: slower processes are nested, how the nervous system samples the world,
3:22
Speaker 2: how memory items may be sequenced, and how large scale
3:25
Speaker 2: states of consciousness are stabilized or destabilized by rhythmic coordination.
3:31
Speaker 2: And yet, for all its precision, neuroscience has not erased
3:34
Speaker 2: the old human intuition that certain thresholds of consciousness are special.
3:39
Speaker 2: Human beings have long treated the descent into sleep, the
3:42
Speaker 2: edge of dream, the state of trance, the stillness of prayer,
3:46
Speaker 2: and the altered focus of ritual as privileged zones places
3:50
Speaker 2: where healing, revelation, symbolic imagery, or contact with something deeper
3:55
Speaker 2: might occur. Ancient Greek incubation rights at the Yesclepea ritualize
3:59
Speaker 2: sleep in sacred spaces for healing and revelatory dreams. Modern
4:03
Speaker 2: sleep research, working in a completely different vocabulary, has found
4:07
Speaker 2: that sleep onset, especially in the N one threshold between
4:11
Speaker 2: wake and a sleep, can be usually fertile for creative association,
4:15
Speaker 2: dream and corporation, and flexible recombination of ideas. The theology
4:20
Speaker 2: and the physiology are not the same thing, but they
4:23
Speaker 2: are staring at the same borderland. So today we're not
4:27
Speaker 2: going to treat delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma as
4:31
Speaker 2: cheap self help slogans or magical frequencies that explain everything.
4:35
Speaker 1: We are going to treat them the way they.
4:37
Speaker 2: Deserve to be treated, as clues clues to how the
4:40
Speaker 2: brain shifts between inwardness and outwardness, between rest and action,
4:44
Speaker 2: between signal and noise, between vigilance and surrender, between the
4:48
Speaker 2: world we share and the imagery that rises from within.
4:52
Speaker 2: We are going to ask what these rhythms actually are,
4:55
Speaker 2: what parts of the brain and nervous system are most
4:57
Speaker 2: involved in them, what they do sleep and waking life,
5:01
Speaker 2: how they affect memory, focus, trance and overload, and why
5:05
Speaker 2: ancient people may have ritualized some of the very threshold's.
5:09
Speaker 2: Modern electrophysiology is only now describing with technical precision, because
5:15
Speaker 2: the DEEPU look, the harder it becomes to say that
5:17
Speaker 2: consciousness is one fixed condition. It looks more like a
5:21
Speaker 2: moving arrangement of rhythms, some slow, some fast, sub stabilizing,
5:26
Speaker 2: some disruptive, some opening the gates of perception, and some
5:30
Speaker 2: helping close them. Every night, the brain descends through changing
5:33
Speaker 2: oscillatory regimes. Every day, Attention rises and falls with changing
5:37
Speaker 2: rhythmic balance. Every period of fatigue, meditation, dream, panic, focus, drift,
5:44
Speaker 2: and recovery leaves behind a different signature in time. The
5:48
Speaker 2: mind is not merely thinking. The mind is pulsing. And
5:52
Speaker 2: before we move into the deep end of delta, theta, alpha, beta,
5:55
Speaker 2: and gamma one by one, we need to begin at
5:58
Speaker 2: the foundation. What exactly is a brain wave? A brain
6:02
Speaker 2: wave is not a thought, and it is not a
6:05
Speaker 2: little mystical current floating through the skull. A brain wave
6:09
Speaker 2: is a rhythmic pattern in the brain's electrical activity, more specifically,
6:14
Speaker 2: a reoccurring fluctuation in voltage that can be recorded from
6:18
Speaker 2: the scalp with an EEG. What EEG captures is not
6:23
Speaker 2: the firing of one single neuron, but the sumed activity
6:26
Speaker 2: of very large populations of neurons, especially synchronized post synaptic
6:31
Speaker 2: currents in similarly aligned cortical pyramidal cells. In other words,
6:36
Speaker 2: what reaches the scalp is already a large scale, blended signal,
6:40
Speaker 2: a smooth out electrical portrait of coordinated activity across cortical tissue,
6:45
Speaker 2: rather than a direct microphone placed against an individual thought.
6:48
Speaker 2: That matters because the word brainwave can make people imagine
6:52
Speaker 2: that the brain is producing one clean signal at a time,
6:55
Speaker 2: like a tuning fork.
6:56
Speaker 1: It is not.
6:57
Speaker 2: The living brain is generating many temporal patterns at once,
7:00
Speaker 2: across multiple regions at multiple scales, while sensory input, memory, movement, emotion,
7:06
Speaker 2: and internal thought all complete and cooperate. The conventional wave
7:11
Speaker 2: labels delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma are useful because they
7:15
Speaker 2: let researchers describe reoccurring frequency ranges in that electrical activity,
7:20
Speaker 2: but they are only the beginning of interpretation, not the
7:23
Speaker 2: end of it. Even the band boundaries themselves vary somewhat
7:26
Speaker 2: across papers and methods, which is one reason serious electrophysiology
7:31
Speaker 2: treats them as operational categories rather than eternal natural boxes.
7:36
Speaker 2: In the standard broad classification, delta refers roughly to zero
7:39
Speaker 2: point five to four hertz, theta to about four to
7:43
Speaker 2: seven hertz, alpha to about eight to twelve hertz, beta
7:47
Speaker 2: to about thirteen to thirty hertz, and gamma to frequencies
7:50
Speaker 2: above that, often starting around thirty hertz. Those labels are
7:54
Speaker 2: based on frequency how many cycles per second the signal completes,
7:58
Speaker 2: not on meaning that distinction is important. Frequency tells you
8:03
Speaker 2: how fast the oscillation is. It does not by itself
8:07
Speaker 2: tell you what the person is experiencing, what brain system
8:10
Speaker 2: is driving it, whether the signal is healthy or pathological,
8:13
Speaker 2: or whether the rhythm reflects rest effort, inhibition, coordination, fatigue,
8:18
Speaker 2: or noise. So when we say the brain is oscillating,
8:21
Speaker 2: what we really mean is that populations of neurons are
8:24
Speaker 2: shifting through repeating cycles of greater and lesser excitability in time.
8:29
Speaker 2: That timing may help determine when information is more likely
8:32
Speaker 2: to be received, amplified, ignored, coordinated, or passed from one
8:37
Speaker 2: neural group to another. This is why oscillations matter so
8:41
Speaker 2: much in modern neuroscience. They are not just decorative ripples
8:44
Speaker 2: sitting on top of cognition. Some of the strongest theories
8:47
Speaker 2: in the field argue that rhythmic synchronization helps control communication
8:51
Speaker 2: between neuronal populations, essentially shaping when signals can most effectively
8:56
Speaker 2: get through. EEG is especially powerful because it gives us
8:59
Speaker 2: act to these timing patterns. On the millisecond scale, brain
9:04
Speaker 2: activity changes very fast, and EEG is one of the
9:07
Speaker 2: best non evasive tools for capturing that speed. But the
9:11
Speaker 2: tradeoff is that scalp EEG is not a transparent window
9:14
Speaker 2: directly into a single source. The electrical field spreads through
9:19
Speaker 2: brain tissue, sebral spinal fluid, skull, and scalp before reaching
9:24
Speaker 2: the electrodes, and each channel reflects a mixture of contributions
9:27
Speaker 2: rather than a neat one to one map from electrode
9:30
Speaker 2: to brain structure. This is why source localization requires computational modeling,
9:35
Speaker 2: and why people who talk about brain waves as if
9:38
Speaker 2: each one comes from one simple place are usually oversimplifying
9:41
Speaker 2: the physiology. There is another complication, and it is one
9:45
Speaker 2: the Internet almost always ignores. Not everything in the EEG
9:49
Speaker 2: trace is genuine oscillation generated by the brain in the
9:52
Speaker 2: way people imagine raw. EEG includes artifacts from eye movements, blinking,
9:59
Speaker 2: muscle t draw activity, and movement. High frequency activity is
10:04
Speaker 2: especially vulnerable to contamination from facial and scalp muscles, which
10:08
Speaker 2: is one reason the most dramatic online claims about gamma.
10:12
Speaker 1: Should always be treated carefully. Even beyond artifacts. Modern methodology
10:16
Speaker 1: has emphasized that neural field data contain both rhythmic and
10:20
Speaker 1: imperiodic components, and that failing to separate them can lead
10:24
Speaker 1: to bad interpretations. In plain language, not every bump in
10:28
Speaker 1: a power spectrum means the brain has switched into a
10:30
Speaker 1: mystical frequency mode. This is also why the idea of
10:34
Speaker 1: a brain wave has to be handled with more discipline
10:36
Speaker 1: than people usually bring to it. The rhythm is real,
10:40
Speaker 1: but a rhythm is not a meaning. Alpha is not
10:43
Speaker 1: automatically peaceful, theta is not automatically trans Beta is not
10:48
Speaker 1: automatically rational thought. A given rhythm can reflect very different
10:52
Speaker 1: things depending on whether it appears in visual cortex or
10:55
Speaker 1: frontal control regions, during rest or during effort, in sleep
11:00
Speaker 1: or in wakefulness, in healthy function, or in pathology. The
11:04
Speaker 1: scientific value of brain waves lies precisely in that subtly
11:08
Speaker 1: they are structured clues about state timing, coordination, and circuit dynamics,
11:13
Speaker 1: not self interpretating symbols, and that is what makes them
11:18
Speaker 1: so compelling, because once you understand that a brain wave
11:21
Speaker 1: is a large scale rhythm of coordinated neural timing, you
11:24
Speaker 1: are no longer asking a toy question like which wave
11:28
Speaker 1: means meditation? You are asking a much deeper question.
11:31
Speaker 2: How does the brain organize different states of consciousness through
11:35
Speaker 2: changing patterns of timing, synchronization, and excitability. How does it
11:39
Speaker 2: move from vigilance to drowsiness, from stillness to action, from
11:43
Speaker 2: dreamless depth to image rich threshold, from calm inwardness to
11:47
Speaker 2: externally driven engagement. And once that foundation is in place,
11:52
Speaker 2: the next thing we have to confront is the first
11:54
Speaker 2: great mistake almost everyone makes when they hear these terms
11:57
Speaker 2: for the first time. Before we go any further, we
12:01
Speaker 2: have to clear away the first major misunderstanding, the one
12:04
Speaker 2: that quietly distorts almost every popular conversation about brain waves.
12:10
Speaker 2: It is the idea that each frequency band corresponds to
12:13
Speaker 2: one fixed mental state, as though the brain were a
12:16
Speaker 2: machine with five labeled settings delta for sleep, theta for trance,
12:20
Speaker 2: alpha for calm, beta for thinking, gamma for enlightenment. That
12:25
Speaker 2: picture is simple, memorable, and wrong. The brain does not
12:29
Speaker 2: work by assigning one wave to one experience. It works
12:32
Speaker 2: through overlapping oscillatory dynamics, whose meaning depends on context where
12:38
Speaker 2: in the brain they appear, what the organism is doing,
12:41
Speaker 2: what other rhythms are co occurring, and whether the person
12:44
Speaker 2: is resting, sleeping, remembering, perceiving, acting, or struggling to maintain control.
12:50
Speaker 2: That matters because a frequency band is only a description
12:53
Speaker 2: of speed. It tells you how fast a pattern is cycling.
12:57
Speaker 2: It does not tell you by itself what the means.
13:01
Speaker 2: Theta can be linked to drowsiness and early sleep, but
13:04
Speaker 2: frontal midline data is also one of the most studied
13:07
Speaker 2: signatures of cognitive control, conflict monitoring, and the need to
13:11
Speaker 2: regulate behavior under pressure. In other words, the very same
13:15
Speaker 2: broadband that shows up as a person drifts towards dream
13:18
Speaker 2: can also intensify when the brain is trying to stay
13:21
Speaker 2: organized in the face of difficulty. That alone should be
13:24
Speaker 2: enough to make us suspicious of every one word internet definition.
13:28
Speaker 2: Alpha gives us a similar lesson. In its classical form,
13:31
Speaker 2: alpha is prominent during relaxed wakefulness, especially with eyes closed,
13:36
Speaker 2: and that is why it became associated in popular imagination
13:39
Speaker 2: with calm, rest and meditative quiet. But more careful work
13:43
Speaker 2: has argued that alpha is not merely a passive sign
13:46
Speaker 2: of relaxation. It is also bound up with cortical excitability
13:50
Speaker 2: and sensory gating, especially in visual systems. In planar terms,
13:54
Speaker 2: alpha can reflect a brain actively regulating what gets through
13:58
Speaker 2: and what gets suppressed. So even a rhythm long advertised
14:01
Speaker 2: as a peace wave may in practice be part of
14:04
Speaker 2: the machinery by which the nervous system filters the world.
14:07
Speaker 2: Beta and gamma become even more vulnerable to oversimplification. Beta
14:11
Speaker 2: is often treated as the rhythm of ordinary thinking, but
14:14
Speaker 2: that is too small a description for something that participates
14:17
Speaker 2: in sensory motor readiness, maintenance of the current behavioral set,
14:21
Speaker 2: and multiple forms of engaged wakefulness. Gamma, meanwhile, is routinely
14:26
Speaker 2: romanticized online as if it were the electrical signature of
14:30
Speaker 2: spiritual elevation.
14:31
Speaker 1: Genius, or mystical unity.
14:33
Speaker 2: But to serious literature treats fast oscillatory activity with much
14:38
Speaker 2: more caution, not only because gamma can be related to
14:41
Speaker 2: integration and high level processing, but because high frequency EEG
14:46
Speaker 2: is also especially vulnerable to artifact and overinterpretation. The point
14:52
Speaker 2: is not these rhythms mean nothing. The point is that
14:55
Speaker 2: they never mean only one thing. The deeper scientific lesson
14:59
Speaker 2: is at usci a relational. Their significance often lies in
15:03
Speaker 2: how they participate in larger functional systems attension, control, prediction, memory, perception, movement,
15:12
Speaker 2: rather than any standalone essence of the frequency itself. Frontal
15:16
Speaker 2: theater can coordinate control processes, Alpha can index shifts and excitability,
15:20
Speaker 2: and inward versus outward allocation. Different bands may interact through
15:25
Speaker 2: cross frequency organization, and the same nominal band can play
15:28
Speaker 2: different roles across different circuits. This is why electrophysiology becomes
15:33
Speaker 2: more illuminating as it becomes less slogan friendly. The closer
15:38
Speaker 2: we get to the real brain, the less useful the
15:40
Speaker 2: cartoon becomes. And that is actually good news for the
15:43
Speaker 2: kind of episode we are trying to build, because it
15:46
Speaker 2: means the truth is richer than the chart. These rhythms
15:49
Speaker 2: are not dead labels attached to pre packaged states. They
15:52
Speaker 2: are living timing patterns woven into vigilance, effort, fatigue, image formation,
15:58
Speaker 2: sensory suppression, motor readiness, memory coordination, and the shifting thresholds
16:03
Speaker 2: between one mode of consciousness and another. They do not
16:06
Speaker 2: reduce experience to a code, so if one wave does
16:09
Speaker 2: not equal one state, then the only honest wave forward
16:12
Speaker 2: is to move through these bands carefully, one at a time,
16:15
Speaker 2: beginning not with the most glamorous or exotic, but with
16:18
Speaker 2: the slowest and deepest of.
16:19
Speaker 1: The mole delta, the deep rhythm.
16:23
Speaker 2: If we begin in the slowest end of the classical
16:25
Speaker 2: band map, we begin with delta roughly the lowest frequency,
16:29
Speaker 2: highest amplitude activity in the standard EEG framework, and the
16:33
Speaker 2: rhythm most strongly associated with deep non rem sleep, especially
16:37
Speaker 2: stage N three, the deepest ordinary sleep state in a
16:40
Speaker 2: normal night. In a formal sleep, scoring N three is
16:45
Speaker 2: marked by prominent, slow, high amplitude waves in the delta range,
16:49
Speaker 2: often most clearly measured over front door central leads. This
16:53
Speaker 2: is the stage from which people are hardest to wake,
16:56
Speaker 2: the stage more associated with profound disengagement from the sense world,
17:00
Speaker 2: in the stage that gives the first strong clue that
17:03
Speaker 2: being asleep is not a single condition but a hierarchy
17:06
Speaker 2: of descent. What makes delta so important is that it
17:10
Speaker 2: is not merely a sign that consciousness has dimmed. It
17:14
Speaker 2: is part of a highly structured physiological state. Deep NREM
17:18
Speaker 2: sleep is categorized by large scales slow activity generated through
17:23
Speaker 2: thalamocortical dynamics in cortical slow oscilitary organization and its intensity
17:29
Speaker 2: tracks prior weakfulness. The longer and harder the waking day,
17:33
Speaker 2: the greater the homeostatic pressure for the slow wave activity
17:36
Speaker 2: during subsequent sleep. In other words, delta is not random
17:40
Speaker 2: electrical slowing. It is part of sleep homeostasis itself, one
17:45
Speaker 2: of the clearest measurable signs that the brain is responding
17:48
Speaker 2: to the burden of being awake. That is why delta
17:51
Speaker 2: can be framed scientifically and poetically as the rhythm of surrender.
17:57
Speaker 2: In waking life, the brain is constantly forced to maintain prediction, vigilance, orientation,
18:02
Speaker 2: and responsiveness. In deep slow wave sleep, much of that
18:06
Speaker 2: outward burden is released. Responsiveness to the external world drops sharply,
18:11
Speaker 2: arousal thresholds rise, and the organism enters one of the
18:15
Speaker 2: most inwardly regulated states in the entire daily cycle. This
18:19
Speaker 2: is not death, not coma, not anesthesia, but it is
18:23
Speaker 2: the closest ordinary consciousness comes to a controlled dissolution of
18:26
Speaker 2: waking contact. The self as an alert and externally anchored
18:31
Speaker 2: operator temporary loosens its hold. But the deepest mistake would
18:35
Speaker 2: be to imagine delta as mere blankness. Slow wave sleep
18:39
Speaker 2: has been repeatedly implicated in memory processing, especially in the
18:43
Speaker 2: offline stabilization and reorganization of recently encoded information. Reviews of
18:49
Speaker 2: the field have linked slow wave sleep to the consolidation
18:52
Speaker 2: of declarative memory, and experimental work has shown that boosting
18:56
Speaker 2: slow oscillatory activity can increase from mental slow wave in
19:01
Speaker 2: spindle activity alongside improved overnight memory performance. The sleeping brain, then,
19:08
Speaker 2: is not simply shut down beneath delta. It may be
19:11
Speaker 2: using these slow rhythms to coordinate forms of hippocampal cortical
19:15
Speaker 2: dialogue that waking consciousness never feels directly. This gives delta
19:21
Speaker 2: a double significance. On one level, it is the rhythm
19:24
Speaker 2: of profound biological restoration, the system pulling away from the world,
19:28
Speaker 2: reducing responsiveness and honoring sleep pressure. On another level, it
19:33
Speaker 2: is the rhythm of hidden work, large scale coordination, synaptic recalibration,
19:38
Speaker 2: and the conditions under which memory traces may be stabilized
19:41
Speaker 2: and integrated. This is part of why slow wave sleep
19:45
Speaker 2: matters so much. When it is cut short, fragmented, or weakened.
19:50
Speaker 2: The damage is not only subjective fatigue, The consequences can
19:54
Speaker 2: extend into learning, attention, cognitive sharpness, and the long term
19:58
Speaker 2: brain health. There is also an important portion here because
20:03
Speaker 2: context changes everything. In healthy sleep, delta is expected and vital,
20:08
Speaker 2: but prominent. Slow activity outside the right context can signal
20:12
Speaker 2: something very different. Diffuseal focal delta during wakefulness may reflect fatigue,
20:17
Speaker 2: abnormal cortical function, or pathology, depending on the pattern and
20:21
Speaker 2: clinical setting. That is a perfect example of the rule
20:24
Speaker 2: we established earlier. The frequency alone does not tell the
20:28
Speaker 2: whole story. Delta is restorative in one state, concerning in another.
20:33
Speaker 2: The rhythm is real, but its meaning is always relational.
20:36
Speaker 2: So delta is where the episode's deep logic begins to
20:39
Speaker 2: refeel itself. The slowest rhythm is not the simplest one.
20:43
Speaker 2: It is a rhythm of depth, of withdrawal, of high
20:46
Speaker 2: arousal threshold, of sleep pressure, answered of restoration, and of
20:50
Speaker 2: concealed nocturnal processing. It is the underworld of the ordinary
20:55
Speaker 2: nervous system. Not supernatural, but no less mysterious for that.
21:00
Speaker 2: And once we have gone that deep, the next step
21:02
Speaker 2: is not further downward. It is toward the threshold where
21:05
Speaker 2: waking begins to blur without fully disappearing. If delta is
21:09
Speaker 2: the rhythm of depth, then theta is the rhythm of threshold.
21:12
Speaker 2: In the standard EEG framework, theta is usually described in
21:16
Speaker 2: the range of roughly four to seven or eight hurts,
21:19
Speaker 2: and it appears most famously in drowsiness early sleep, in
21:23
Speaker 2: the transitional borderland where waking consciousness begins to lose its
21:27
Speaker 2: clean edges informal sleep. Staging N one, the lightest stage
21:32
Speaker 2: of sleep in the first true stage after wakefulness, features
21:36
Speaker 2: low amplitude mixed frequency activity in which theta becomes a
21:40
Speaker 2: defining part of the picture. This is the zone of
21:43
Speaker 2: drifting imagery, loosening attention, unstable self monitoring, and those strange
21:48
Speaker 2: fragments that feel like they are neither fully chosen nor
21:51
Speaker 2: fully dreamed. That alone would make theta important, but theta
21:56
Speaker 2: becomes truly fascinating because it has a double life. It
21:59
Speaker 2: is not not belong only to drowsiness and descent. A
22:02
Speaker 2: major body of research also links data, especially frontal midline theta,
22:07
Speaker 2: to cognitive control, conflict monitoring, uncertainty effort in the regulation
22:12
Speaker 2: of behavior when the brain has to hold itself together
22:15
Speaker 2: under pressure.
22:17
Speaker 1: In other words, data is not.
22:18
Speaker 2: Only the rhythm of slipping away from ordinary waking consciousness.
22:22
Speaker 2: It is also one of the rhythms by which the
22:24
Speaker 2: mind exerts internal order. That is why theta is so
22:28
Speaker 2: powerful for this episode. It sits at both ends of
22:31
Speaker 2: the threshold, appearing when consciousness softens and when cognition intensifies.
22:37
Speaker 2: That is where the neuroanatomy starts to matter. When researchers
22:41
Speaker 2: talk about frontal midline theta, they are usually pointing toward
22:44
Speaker 2: activity associated with medial frontal and mid sigulate control systems,
22:49
Speaker 2: where theta has been proposed as a mechanism for signaling
22:52
Speaker 2: the need for control and coordinating adjustments in behavior. But
22:56
Speaker 2: theta also has another major story to hip acamp. Work
23:01
Speaker 2: on human hippocampal recordings have found that low frequency theta
23:05
Speaker 2: activity in the hippocampus increases during successful memory encoding and
23:10
Speaker 2: before successful requel, supporting the long standing idea that Theta
23:14
Speaker 2: is deeply involved in episodic memory operations. So Theta is
23:19
Speaker 2: tied to both the system that helps us manage present
23:22
Speaker 2: demands into one of the systems most central to storing
23:25
Speaker 2: and retrieving the past that gives data a strange dignity.
23:30
Speaker 2: Delta is the great release downward the heavy surrender into
23:33
Speaker 2: deep sleep. Theta is more ambiguous. Theta is where organization
23:37
Speaker 2: and disillusion begin to overlap. It is the rhythm of
23:41
Speaker 2: the drifting threshold, yes, but also of sequencing, regulation, and
23:46
Speaker 2: internal navigation. That is why it fits so well with
23:50
Speaker 2: the hypnagagia, that unstable border between wake and sleep, where images, voices,
23:55
Speaker 2: bodily distortions, and unexpected associations can emerge before the person
24:00
Speaker 2: has fully crossed into dream. Modern work on sleep onset
24:04
Speaker 2: has even suggested that N one may be a kind
24:06
Speaker 2: of created sweet spot. A recent targeted dream incubation research
24:10
Speaker 2: found that a period of N one's sleep can enhance
24:13
Speaker 2: later creative performance, especially when a prompted theme is successfully
24:17
Speaker 2: incorporated into the hypnogogic experience. That is where older human
24:21
Speaker 2: intuitions begin to come back into view. Across cultures, threshold
24:26
Speaker 2: states have often been treated as privileged states. The edge
24:29
Speaker 2: of sleep, the image before dreaming, the loosened the moment
24:33
Speaker 2: before full unconsciousness, the state in which symbols rise more
24:37
Speaker 2: easily than arguments. Neuroscience does not turn that ancient intuition
24:41
Speaker 2: into theology, but it does confirm that the threshold into
24:44
Speaker 2: sleep is not empty. It is a distinct state with
24:47
Speaker 2: its own electrophysiological profile and its own cognitive possibilities. Theata,
24:54
Speaker 2: in that sense is not proof of revelation, but it
24:58
Speaker 2: is an excellent candidate for one of the brain me's
25:00
Speaker 2: liminal signatures, a rhythm that often accompanies the weakening of
25:04
Speaker 2: the ordinary sensory anchoring and the rise of internally generated material.
25:09
Speaker 2: And once again, context is everything. Theta in an exhausted,
25:13
Speaker 2: drifting brain is not the same as data in a
25:16
Speaker 2: brain exerting control. Theta in early sleep is not the
25:20
Speaker 2: same thing as data and memory guided behavior. The same
25:23
Speaker 2: band can support very different functions depending on where it
25:27
Speaker 2: is expressed and what state the organism is in. That
25:31
Speaker 2: is why simplistic frequency charts always collapse at the moment
25:34
Speaker 2: they seem most useful. Theta is not one thing. Theta
25:38
Speaker 2: is a border rhythm, and borders or where categories start
25:41
Speaker 2: to fail. So if delta is the underworld of the
25:44
Speaker 2: ordinary nervous system, theta is the doorway, the unstable region
25:48
Speaker 2: where waking loses its full authority but consciousness has not
25:52
Speaker 2: yet disappeared, where memory and imagery become unusually active and
25:56
Speaker 2: where control and surrender can exist closer together than we
25:59
Speaker 2: use usually realize. And from there the next step is
26:03
Speaker 2: not deeper sleep, but a different kind of quiet altogether,
26:07
Speaker 2: the quiet of wakefulness that has not collapsed, but has
26:10
Speaker 2: begun to turn inward. If data belongs to the threshold
26:14
Speaker 2: where a waking begins to blur, alpha belongs to a
26:16
Speaker 2: different kind of altered condition, not the collapse of wakefulness,
26:20
Speaker 2: but the quieting of it. In the classical EEG literature,
26:25
Speaker 2: alpha is usually defined around eight to twelve hertz, sometimes
26:29
Speaker 2: extending slightly broader depending on method, and it became historically
26:32
Speaker 2: famous because Hans Burger observed it as a dominant rhythm
26:36
Speaker 2: and relaxed wakefulness, especially when the eyes are closed in
26:40
Speaker 2: adults at rest. Alpha is especially prominent over parietal, occipital
26:45
Speaker 2: and occipital regions, which is one reason it became associated
26:48
Speaker 2: so early with stillness, inwardness and the visual system setting
26:52
Speaker 2: into relative quiet. But alpha becomes far more interesting once
26:55
Speaker 2: you move beyond the old idea that it simply marks
26:58
Speaker 2: an idle brain. Line of work now treats alpha as
27:02
Speaker 2: part of an active functional system involved in regulating excitability,
27:06
Speaker 2: filtering input, and shaping selective attention. In that framework, alpha
27:12
Speaker 2: is not just what the brain does when nothing is happening.
27:15
Speaker 2: It may be part of how the brain decides what
27:17
Speaker 2: will not be allowed to dominate.
27:19
Speaker 1: Processing.
27:20
Speaker 2: Reviews and experimental work have repeatedly tied alphaban activity to
27:25
Speaker 2: sensory suppression, distractor filtering, and the gating of neurminal activity,
27:31
Speaker 2: especially in parieto occipital systems downstream of early visual cortex.
27:37
Speaker 2: That is why alpha is one of the best examples
27:39
Speaker 2: of how the popular charts fail. If a person closes
27:42
Speaker 2: their eyes, reduces sensory load and becomes calmly wakeful, alpha
27:47
Speaker 2: often increases, But that does not mean alpha is merely
27:50
Speaker 2: the electrical signature of peace. It may reflect a nervous
27:54
Speaker 2: system that is actively reducing irrelevant competition and creating the
27:58
Speaker 2: conditions for inwardly state awareness. In plain language, alpha can
28:03
Speaker 2: be thought of as a rhythm of controlled quieting. Quiet
28:06
Speaker 2: in this sense and not absence, quiet is an achievement.
28:11
Speaker 2: This is also where neuroanatomy starts to deepen the story.
28:14
Speaker 2: The classic resting alpha pattern is strongest over ascympetal and
28:18
Speaker 2: parietois simpatal regions, linking it tightly to visual processing and
28:22
Speaker 2: visual attention, but modern work also points to thalamal corticole
28:26
Speaker 2: mechanisms as part of the broader alpha architecture. That matters
28:30
Speaker 2: because the thalamus is one of the brain's great regulatory helps,
28:34
Speaker 2: deeply involved in relaying and shaping information flow between cortex
28:38
Speaker 2: and the body. So when alpha rises, especially in wakeful
28:42
Speaker 2: eyes closed conditions, what we may be seeing is not
28:45
Speaker 2: simply relaxation, but a coordinated shift in how visual and
28:49
Speaker 2: intentional systems are being regulated. There is a beautiful psychological
28:54
Speaker 2: implication hidden in that alpha helps explain why inwardness is
28:58
Speaker 2: not the same thing as spiness. A person can be
29:02
Speaker 2: fully awake and yet less dominated by the outside world.
29:06
Speaker 2: They can be alert, requieter, less flooded by incoming stimulation,
29:10
Speaker 2: less pulled apart by sensory competition. That is one reason
29:13
Speaker 2: alpha makes such a compelling bridge to contemplative practice. It
29:18
Speaker 2: gives us a neuroscientific language for states in which awareness narrows, stills,
29:23
Speaker 2: or turns inward without vanishing. It does not prove prayer, meditation,
29:27
Speaker 2: or scrying in a theological sense, but it does help
29:31
Speaker 2: describe the nervous system conditions under which internal material may
29:35
Speaker 2: become more legible because external interference has been partially dampened down.
29:40
Speaker 2: At the same time, Alpha should not be romanticized into
29:44
Speaker 2: a universal marker of spiritual death. As with every band,
29:47
Speaker 2: context governs meaning, Alpha can change with intentional demand, perceptual load, anticipation,
29:54
Speaker 2: test structure, and brain region. Some work even argues against
29:58
Speaker 2: simplistic gain control interpret citations in early visual cortex, proposing
30:03
Speaker 2: instead that ALPHA is doing something more regionally specific and
30:06
Speaker 2: functionally selective. That isn't an important nuance because it reminds
30:11
Speaker 2: us that even one of the most stable and well
30:14
Speaker 2: known rhythms in EEG is still being actively interpreted and refined.
30:19
Speaker 2: So Alpha is best understood not as the way of peace,
30:22
Speaker 2: but as the rhythm of selective quiet the brain, reducing competition,
30:27
Speaker 2: regulating access, and making room for a different style of consciousness,
30:32
Speaker 2: still awake, still present, but less outwardly seized. If data
30:37
Speaker 2: is the trembling doorway where waking starts to fall apart,
30:40
Speaker 2: alpha is the chamber of poised inwardness, where waking remains
30:44
Speaker 2: intact but becomes less noisy, less reactive, and more capable
30:49
Speaker 2: of internal orientation. And from there the next movement is
30:54
Speaker 2: not further inward. It is outward again into task action, readiness,
30:59
Speaker 2: and in the electrical tempo of the active day. If
31:05
Speaker 2: alpha is the rhythm of selective quiet, beta belongs to
31:08
Speaker 2: a very different style of consciousness, engagement, maintenance, readiness, and action.
31:14
Speaker 2: In this standard EEG framework, Beta usually occupies the range
31:18
Speaker 2: from about thirteen to thirty hertz, and it has long
31:22
Speaker 2: been associated with active wakefulness, especially in sensory, motor, and
31:26
Speaker 2: frontal systems. But just like every other band we have discussed,
31:30
Speaker 2: Beta becomes more interesting the moment you stop treating it
31:33
Speaker 2: as a cartoon. It is not simply the thinking wave.
31:37
Speaker 2: Beta is one of the rhythms most closely tied to
31:40
Speaker 2: the brain's management of the current state, what the motor
31:43
Speaker 2: system is holding, what the cortex is maintaining, what the
31:46
Speaker 2: organism is prepared to continue doing rather than abruptly change.
31:51
Speaker 2: This is why beta has such a strong foothold in
31:54
Speaker 2: the sensory motors story. Over sensory motor cortex. Beta activity
31:59
Speaker 2: is a major feature of movement related dynamics. Beta power
32:02
Speaker 2: typically decreases during motor planning and execution, a phenomenon often
32:07
Speaker 2: described as event related desynchronization, and then the rebounds after
32:12
Speaker 2: movement ends in a post movement increase, often called beta
32:16
Speaker 2: synchronization or beta rebound. These changes are not confined to
32:20
Speaker 2: actual movement alone. Related beta dynamics can also appear during passive, imagined,
32:26
Speaker 2: and observed movement, which is one reason beta is treated
32:30
Speaker 2: as part of a broader network for action, preparation, action evaluation,
32:35
Speaker 2: and maintenance of the current motor set. That phrase that
32:39
Speaker 2: keeps returning in the literature is the status quo. That
32:42
Speaker 2: phrase can sound simplistic at first, but it captures something important.
32:46
Speaker 2: A major line of interpretation proposes that beta helps preserve
32:50
Speaker 2: the current sensory, motor, or cognitive state, reducing interference from
32:54
Speaker 2: alternative actions, and supporting continuity rather than abrupt change. Some
32:59
Speaker 2: researchers have argued more broadly that beta is involved in
33:02
Speaker 2: preserving the current brain state, top down processing, and long
33:06
Speaker 2: range coordination, which means beta is not only a motor rhythm,
33:10
Speaker 2: it is also a rhythm of organized persistence. That makes
33:14
Speaker 2: beta an ideal rhythm for ordinary waking life. Most of
33:18
Speaker 2: daily existence depends on continuity. We do not want to
33:22
Speaker 2: reinvent our posture, a behavioral plan or a response set
33:26
Speaker 2: every fraction of a second. We want to hold the task,
33:29
Speaker 2: sustain attention, maintain a movement sequence, preserve the current rule,
33:34
Speaker 2: continue the present action until there is a reason to stop.
33:38
Speaker 2: Beta fits that world well. It is one of the
33:40
Speaker 2: electrical signatures of a nervous system, staying on task, holding
33:44
Speaker 2: the line, and keeping the present configuration intact long enough
33:48
Speaker 2: for action to remain coherent. But the power of beta
33:52
Speaker 2: is also where the danger begins. A rhythm that stabilizes
33:55
Speaker 2: the present state can, when exaggerated or prolonged, become a
33:59
Speaker 2: rhythm of over stabilization. This is one reason beta is
34:03
Speaker 2: such a major topic in the study of cortico basal
34:05
Speaker 2: ganglia circuits and Parkinson's disease. Beta band activity is prominent
34:11
Speaker 2: throughout the basil ganglia network and becomes abnormally strong or
34:15
Speaker 2: abnormally synchronized in parkinson states. Beta band activity is prominent
34:20
Speaker 2: throughout the basal ganglia network and becomes abnormally strong or
34:24
Speaker 2: abnormally synchronized in Parkinsonian states, where it has been linked
34:28
Speaker 2: to impaired movement and excessive persistence of the current motor condition.
34:33
Speaker 2: One influential interpretation is that pathological beta reflection over hardened
34:37
Speaker 2: network that has become too good at preserving the current
34:41
Speaker 2: state and too poor at flexible shifting into a new one.
34:45
Speaker 2: The clinical story gives Beta tremendous philosophical weight for this episode,
34:49
Speaker 2: because suddenly Beta is no longer just the rhythm of
34:52
Speaker 2: being awake and active. It becomes the rhythm of holding on,
34:56
Speaker 2: holding posture, holding sequence, holding readA peness, holding the present plan,
35:02
Speaker 2: holding the world steady long enough to move through it,
35:05
Speaker 2: and in pathological excess, holding on too tightly even outside
35:10
Speaker 2: clinical disease. That duality gives us a powerful way to
35:13
Speaker 2: talk about the modern mind. Much of modern life rewards
35:17
Speaker 2: exactly the kind of sustained, externally engaged anticipatory functioning that
35:22
Speaker 2: Beta supports, schedules, deadlines, screens, reactions, vigilance, repetition, productivity, and
35:30
Speaker 2: continuous partial attention. Beta is not the villain of that story.
35:35
Speaker 2: Beta is what makes competent waking action possible. But a
35:39
Speaker 2: life with no dissent out of beta like engagement, begins
35:42
Speaker 2: to feel electrically over committed, always prepared, never surrendered. There
35:48
Speaker 2: is another nuance worth noting, because it prevents Beta from
35:51
Speaker 2: becoming its own stereotype. Beta is not just a steady
35:55
Speaker 2: background home. A growing body of work emphasizes beta bursts
36:00
Speaker 2: transient episodes of beta synchronization, rather than imagining beta as
36:04
Speaker 2: one uninterrupted state. In motor and striadal recordings. These bursts
36:09
Speaker 2: appear to help realign circuit activity to contextual demands, and
36:14
Speaker 2: their abnormal prolongation has been proposed as one way flexibility
36:18
Speaker 2: gets blunted in Parkinson's disease. This is an important correction
36:22
Speaker 2: because it reminds us that the brain's rhythms often operate
36:25
Speaker 2: in punctuated, dynamic events, rather than as smooth, continuous blankets
36:30
Speaker 2: spread across the cortex. So beta is the rhythm of
36:34
Speaker 2: engaged continuity, the tempo of action held together, of plans, sustained,
36:38
Speaker 2: of motor and cognitive sets, preserved long enough to matter.
36:42
Speaker 2: It is the electrical cadence of the ordinary day, the
36:45
Speaker 2: world facing mind, the organism that must remain ready, coherent
36:49
Speaker 2: and responsive. If alpha creates room by quieting competition, beta
36:55
Speaker 2: fills that room with directed activity. And once we reach beta,
36:58
Speaker 2: the next question becomes largest still, because beyond the maintenance
37:02
Speaker 2: of action lies the problem of integration itself. How distributed
37:06
Speaker 2: activity becomes coherent and how the brain turns many signals
37:09
Speaker 2: into something that feels like one world. If beta is
37:13
Speaker 2: the rhythm of holding action together, gamma brings us to
37:16
Speaker 2: a larger and more difficult question, how the brain binds
37:20
Speaker 2: distributed activity into something coherent enough to become perception, attention,
37:25
Speaker 2: and experience. In the broadest conventional sense, gamma refers to
37:30
Speaker 2: activity above about thirty hertz, often discussed in the thirty
37:33
Speaker 2: to eighty hertz range, though exact definitions vary across studies
37:38
Speaker 2: and sub bands are often distinguished. Gamma has been reported
37:42
Speaker 2: across species and across brain systems, and it has become
37:45
Speaker 2: one of the most discussed oscillations in neuroscience because it
37:49
Speaker 2: appears repeatedly in relation to perception, attention, stimulus processing, and
37:54
Speaker 2: local cortical coordination. One reason gamma became so important is
38:00
Speaker 2: that it seemed to offer a solution to an old
38:02
Speaker 2: problem in the science of mind, the problem of binding.
38:07
Speaker 1: Gamma.
38:07
Speaker 2: Oscillations were therefore proposed as a possible timing mechanism by
38:11
Speaker 2: which distributed neural assemblies could transitly coordinate their activity, allowing
38:16
Speaker 2: features processed in different allowing features processed in different cortical
38:22
Speaker 2: populations to be functionally linked.
38:24
Speaker 1: That idea helped make gamma famous, But even.
38:27
Speaker 2: Here the serious literature is more cautious than the popular version.
38:32
Speaker 2: The existence of gamma oscillations and even their modulation by
38:35
Speaker 2: stimuli and behavior, does not by itself prove exactly what
38:39
Speaker 2: role they are playing. What the evidence does support is
38:43
Speaker 2: that gamma is closely tied to active cortical processing. Reviews
38:47
Speaker 2: of visual cortex research describe gamma as strongly associated with
38:51
Speaker 2: sensory drive, local circuit interactions, and fed forward style processing
38:56
Speaker 2: under many conditions, while other studies have linked and coordinated
39:00
Speaker 2: gamma activity to communication across sensory systems and multisensory integration.
39:06
Speaker 2: That makes gamma useful to think of not as a
39:08
Speaker 2: mystical higher consciousness frequency, but as a part of the
39:12
Speaker 2: fast timing architecture by which cortical populations coordinate salient information
39:18
Speaker 2: when the brain is actively constructing a perceptual world. This
39:22
Speaker 2: is where gamma becomes philosophically powerful. A great deal of
39:26
Speaker 2: neuroscience focuses on where things happen in the brain. Gamma
39:30
Speaker 2: pushes the question toward when things happen together. The tissue
39:34
Speaker 2: is no longer only whether one cortical area is active,
39:37
Speaker 2: but whether multiple assemblies are timing their activity in a
39:41
Speaker 2: way that permits coordination, selection, and coherent representation. In that sense,
39:46
Speaker 2: gamma belongs in the episode not because it is exotic,
39:49
Speaker 2: but because it dramatizes one of the deepest ideas in
39:52
Speaker 2: modern brain science. Cognition may depend as much on temporal
39:56
Speaker 2: organization as on anatomical location, but gamma is also the
40:00
Speaker 2: band where caution becomes absolutely essential. High frequency activity recorded
40:05
Speaker 2: with scalp, EEG and MEG is notoriously vulnerable to contamination
40:10
Speaker 2: from muscle activity, including facial muscles, neck muscles, microscods, and
40:16
Speaker 2: other cranial artifacts. Reviews of high frequency recordings have stressed
40:20
Speaker 2: that not all reported gamma effects are cleanly neural and
40:24
Speaker 2: that insufficient proper Reviews of high frequency recordings have stressed
40:29
Speaker 2: that not all reported gamma effects are cleanly neural, and
40:33
Speaker 2: that insufficient preprocessing or poor reporting can make it very
40:36
Speaker 2: difficult to know whether a dramatic gamma finding reflects cortical activity,
40:41
Speaker 2: myogenic contamination, or some mixture of the two. This is
40:46
Speaker 2: one of the main reasons the most sensational online claims
40:48
Speaker 2: about gamma should always be approached skeptically, and that caution
40:53
Speaker 2: does not weaken gamma's importance. It strengthens it. It tells
40:56
Speaker 2: us that gamma matters enough to require precision. It also
41:00
Speaker 2: texts the episode from drifting into mythology. Gamma may participate
41:04
Speaker 2: in perception, attention, salience, and coordination, but it is not
41:07
Speaker 2: a blank check for claims about genius, mystical superiority, or
41:12
Speaker 2: instant enlightenment.
41:13
Speaker 1: The careful position is better.
41:15
Speaker 2: Gamma appears to be one of the fast rhythms by
41:18
Speaker 2: which cortical systems coordinate active processing, but its exact functional
41:22
Speaker 2: role is still debated, varies by circuit and condition, and
41:27
Speaker 2: can be difficult to measure cleanly with non evasive methods.
41:30
Speaker 2: There is also a subtle point worth adding here, because
41:33
Speaker 2: it helps connect gamma to everything we have already covered.
41:37
Speaker 2: Gamma rarely matters in isolation in many models. Its significance
41:41
Speaker 2: depends on how it is nested within slower rhythms. Gamma
41:45
Speaker 2: rarely matters in isolation in many models. Its significance depends
41:49
Speaker 2: on how it is nested within slower rhythms, modulated by
41:53
Speaker 2: test demands, or coordinated across sensory and associative networks. That
41:58
Speaker 2: means gamma is less the final highest step in a
42:01
Speaker 2: ladder and more the fast moving edge of a layered
42:03
Speaker 2: rhythmic system. It is one instrument in the orchestra, not
42:08
Speaker 2: the whole score. So gamma is best understood as the
42:11
Speaker 2: rhythm of fast coordination, the quick binding of salient information,
42:16
Speaker 2: the timing of active cortical assemblies, the possible electrical grammar
42:20
Speaker 2: of perceptual and cognitive coherence. If delta is depth, theta threshold,
42:25
Speaker 2: alpha selective, quiet, and beta engage continuity, Gamma is the
42:30
Speaker 2: question of how many distributed processes become one moment of experience,
42:34
Speaker 2: and once we reach that point, the next step is
42:37
Speaker 2: to stop treating these bands like isolated lecture notes and
42:40
Speaker 2: start following how consciousness actually moves through them in lived experience.
42:45
Speaker 1: By the time we have moved through.
42:47
Speaker 2: Delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma one by one, becomes
42:51
Speaker 2: tempting to picture them as separate entries in a glossary.
42:55
Speaker 2: But that is not how human beings encounter them. We
42:57
Speaker 2: do not live our lives as a chart of them
43:00
Speaker 2: as movement, and nowhere is that movement more visible than
43:03
Speaker 2: in sleep. Sleep is not the brain switching off. It
43:07
Speaker 2: is the brain passing through a pattern sequence of states wake,
43:11
Speaker 2: end one, D two, ND three, and RM, each with
43:15
Speaker 2: its own physiology, its own electrical signatures, and its own
43:19
Speaker 2: relation to consciousness. Modern sleep staging treats a normal night
43:24
Speaker 2: not as one long, uniform state, but as an organized
43:27
Speaker 2: architecture in which NRAM, and RM alternate across repeated cycles.
43:33
Speaker 2: A typical sleep cycle lasts roughly ninety to one hundred
43:36
Speaker 2: and ten minutes, and a full night usually contains four
43:39
Speaker 2: to five of them. That alone changes the way we
43:42
Speaker 2: should think about brain rhythms. The brain does not simply
43:45
Speaker 2: go to sleep. Once it descends, stabilizes, deepens, reactivates, dreams,
43:50
Speaker 2: and cycles again. Early in the night, sleep tends to
43:54
Speaker 2: contain more slow wave N three sleep, while RAM periods
43:58
Speaker 2: often lengthened toward morning. The sleeping brain is not sinking
44:01
Speaker 2: into one static condition. It is moving through an internal choreography,
44:05
Speaker 2: shifting the balance among arousal sensory detachment, memory processing, motor inhibition,
44:12
Speaker 2: and dream generation as the night unfolds. The first step
44:16
Speaker 2: across the boundary is N one. The lightest true sleep
44:19
Speaker 2: stage N one is brief, unstable, and transitional EEG in
44:25
Speaker 2: this stage commonly shows low amplitude mixed frequency activity with
44:29
Speaker 2: increasing THEA, and the person may still hover close enough
44:32
Speaker 2: to waking that thoughts, images, bodily jolts, and fragments of
44:36
Speaker 2: external awareness mingle in a strange, half formed way. This
44:40
Speaker 2: is a threshold stage people often underestimate because it feels
44:43
Speaker 2: too thin to count as real sleep. Yet it is
44:46
Speaker 2: precisely one of the most physiologically fertile borders in the
44:49
Speaker 2: entire sleep cycle. From there the brain enters END two,
44:54
Speaker 2: and here the architecture becomes much more distinctive. End two
44:58
Speaker 2: is not just slightly deeper sleep. It is marked by
45:00
Speaker 2: two defining EEG features, sleep spindles, and K complexes. In adults,
45:07
Speaker 2: N two typically occupies the largest portion of total sleep time,
45:11
Speaker 2: making it less glamorous than deep slow wave sleep perhaps,
45:15
Speaker 2: but in many ways more central to what an ordinary
45:17
Speaker 2: night actually consists of. If N one is the slipping
45:21
Speaker 2: of the grip, N two is the beginning of stable capture,
45:24
Speaker 2: the brain no longer merely drifting towards sleep but inhabiting it.
45:29
Speaker 2: Then comes End three, the deepest non ram stage, the
45:33
Speaker 2: domain of high amplitude, delta activity and slow wave sleep here,
45:38
Speaker 2: arousal thresholds are highest, responsiveness to the outside world is
45:42
Speaker 2: at its lowest, and the physiology of deep restoration becomes
45:45
Speaker 2: most obvious. N Three is what many people mean without
45:49
Speaker 2: realizing it when they imagine real sleep. But it is
45:53
Speaker 2: only part of the cycle. It is not defined the
45:56
Speaker 2: whole night. It anchors one part of it, and then,
45:59
Speaker 2: rather than simply remaining in depth, the brain moves again.
46:03
Speaker 2: RAM sleep emerges with a more activated, mixed frequency eeg. Profile,
46:08
Speaker 2: vivid dreaming, and the strange conjunction of cortical activation with
46:11
Speaker 2: profound skeletal muscle atonia. RAM is one of those clearest
46:16
Speaker 2: reminders that sleep is not reducible to shut down. It
46:19
Speaker 2: is a radically altered state with its own rules, perceptually vivid,
46:23
Speaker 2: emotionally intense, and physiology perceptually vivid, emotionally intense and physiologically distinctive.
46:32
Speaker 2: So the real story of sleep is not a straight
46:35
Speaker 2: descent into darkness. It is repeating circuit. Weight gives way
46:39
Speaker 2: to threshold, threshold to stabilization, stabilization to depth, depth to
46:44
Speaker 2: reactivation and dream, and then the sequence begins again. That
46:48
Speaker 2: cyclical structure is one of the most important things the
46:51
Speaker 2: popular brainwave chart leaves out, it is not enough to
46:55
Speaker 2: know that theta appears in light sleep or delta in
46:58
Speaker 2: deep sleep. What matters is is that these rhythms belong
47:01
Speaker 2: to a larger temporal architecture. What matters is that these
47:05
Speaker 2: rhythms belong to a larger temporal architecture, one that organizes
47:09
Speaker 2: the night into alternating regimes of disengagement, consolidation, restoration, and
47:14
Speaker 2: internally generated experience. And once you begin to sleep that way,
47:18
Speaker 2: another realization follows immediately. The five band chart is not wrong,
47:23
Speaker 2: but it is incomplete because some of the most important
47:26
Speaker 2: machinery in the sleeping brain is not captured by those
47:29
Speaker 2: broad labels alone. If most people know anything about sleep
47:34
Speaker 2: stages at all, they know the broad descent, light sleep,
47:37
Speaker 2: deep sleep, dreaming. But one of the most important things
47:41
Speaker 2: the popular brain wave chart leaves out is that end
47:44
Speaker 2: two sleep has its own defining machinery. In formal sleep scoring,
47:48
Speaker 2: stage ND two is identified by the presence of sleep
47:51
Speaker 2: spindles and k complexes. That matters because N two is
47:55
Speaker 2: not a vague middle ground on the way to deeper sleep.
47:58
Speaker 1: It is a.
47:58
Speaker 2: Distinct physiological state with characteristic events that mark the brains
48:02
Speaker 2: transition into stable, non rim sleep. In ordinary adults, N
48:08
Speaker 2: two typically occupies the largest share of the night, so
48:11
Speaker 2: understanding sleep without understanding N two is like trying to
48:15
Speaker 2: understand waking life with ignoring most of the day.
48:18
Speaker 1: Sleep.
48:18
Speaker 2: Spindles a brief bursts of rhythmic activity classically in the
48:22
Speaker 2: eleven to sixteen hertz range, and they are now widely
48:25
Speaker 2: understood as stalomocortical oscillations patterns generated through coordinated interactions between
48:31
Speaker 2: the thalamic reticular system and cortex. They are not random
48:35
Speaker 2: decorations on the EEG. They are among the best studied
48:39
Speaker 2: signatures of N two sleep, and a large body of
48:42
Speaker 2: work has linked them to plasticity learning and sleep dependent
48:46
Speaker 2: memory consolidation. Recent human studies and reviews continue to support
48:51
Speaker 2: the view that spindle activity is mechanistically tied to cognitive
48:54
Speaker 2: processing during sleep, and not merely passively associated with it.
48:59
Speaker 2: K complex are different in form and probably different in
49:02
Speaker 2: immediate function, but no less important. They are large, well
49:06
Speaker 2: delineated by fascic waves, usually lasting at least half a second,
49:10
Speaker 2: often maximal frontally, and they can occur spontaneously or be
49:14
Speaker 2: triggered by internal or external stimuli. In classical descriptions, they
49:19
Speaker 2: have the largest event seen in a healthy human EEG.
49:22
Speaker 2: During sleep. Their proposed roles are strikingly double sided. They
49:26
Speaker 2: appear to help preserve sleep by suppressing cortical arousal in
49:29
Speaker 2: response to harmless stimuli, yet they may also participate in
49:33
Speaker 2: arousal when a stimulus is judged important enough to warrant waking.
49:38
Speaker 2: This makes the K complex one of the clearest symbols
49:41
Speaker 2: of sleeping brain intelligence. Even in sleep, the nervous system
49:45
Speaker 2: is not absent, it is evaluating. This is where N
49:49
Speaker 2: two becomes far more interesting than a transitional label. Spindles
49:53
Speaker 2: and K complexes suggest that the sleeping brain is not
49:56
Speaker 2: merely drifting downward, but actively regulating the boundary between disconnection
50:01
Speaker 2: and responsiveness. A sound, a touch, a breath interruption, a
50:06
Speaker 2: subtle environmental disturbance. These do not simply hit a sleeping
50:10
Speaker 2: brain as they would a switched off machine. They are filtered, judged,
50:14
Speaker 2: and sometimes met with a K complex that appears to
50:17
Speaker 2: protect sleep unless this stimulus crosses a threshold of significance.
50:22
Speaker 2: In that sense, end two is a guarded state. It
50:25
Speaker 2: is sleep with a gatekeeper still on duty. The anatomy
50:29
Speaker 2: behind these events deepens the story. Simultaneous eeg fMRI work
50:34
Speaker 2: has linked sleep spindles to activity in the thalami, pisterius, singulate, precuneus,
50:40
Speaker 2: puraemn paras, central cortex, and temporal regions, while K complexes
50:46
Speaker 2: have been linked to the thalami as well as broader
50:48
Speaker 2: activity in the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, and sensory mortar areas.
50:55
Speaker 2: That distribution matters because it shows that these events are
50:58
Speaker 2: not tiny, isolated they are network level phenomena involving structures
51:03
Speaker 2: central to relay, sensory regulation, homeostasis, and memory related processing.
51:10
Speaker 2: That is exactly why N two deserves more respect than
51:14
Speaker 2: it usually gets. Deep slow wave sleep tends to receive
51:17
Speaker 2: the mythic language of restoration, and RAM gets the glamour
51:21
Speaker 2: of vivid dreaming. But N two maybe where much of
51:24
Speaker 2: the night's quiet engineering takes place. Spindles have repeatedly been
51:28
Speaker 2: associated with both declarative and procedural memory consolidation. A newer
51:32
Speaker 2: work strengthens the case that spindle dynamics are not epiphenomenal.
51:37
Speaker 2: They may be one of the oscillatory mechanisms by which
51:39
Speaker 2: newly encoded traces are stabilized and coordinated with broader cortical
51:44
Speaker 2: systems during sleep. The story becomes even more powerful when
51:47
Speaker 2: you stop treating spindles as isolated bursts and start seeing
51:51
Speaker 2: them as part of a larger choreography. Current research increasingly
51:55
Speaker 2: emphasizes slow oscillation spindle coupling, especially in frontal regions, as
52:01
Speaker 2: a candidate mechanism for sleep dependent memory consolidation. The sleeping
52:06
Speaker 2: brain may remember better not just when the right rhythms
52:08
Speaker 2: are present, but when they arrive in the right relation
52:11
Speaker 2: to one another. So the lesson of end two is
52:15
Speaker 2: not just sleep has stages. It is that sleep has architecture,
52:19
Speaker 2: and that architecture includes specialized events for stabilization, protection and
52:24
Speaker 2: possibly memory processing. Spindles and k complexes refeel a brain
52:29
Speaker 2: that has not gone silent, but has shifted into another
52:32
Speaker 2: form of intelligence, less behaviorally available, but still discriminating, still organizing,
52:38
Speaker 2: still defending the continuity of sleep. Why quietly preparing the
52:41
Speaker 2: ground for what waking life will remember? And once you
52:45
Speaker 2: see that, the next question becomes unavoidable. If the sleeping
52:49
Speaker 2: brain is producing this much hidden structure, then what is
52:52
Speaker 2: all that structure for? Once sleep stops looking like a
52:57
Speaker 2: shutdown and starts looking like an architecture. The obvious question
53:00
Speaker 2: is what the architecture is for. One of the strongest
53:03
Speaker 2: answers modern neuroscience gives is memory consolidation, the idea that
53:08
Speaker 2: sleep helps stabilize, reorganize, and sometimes transform what was acquired
53:13
Speaker 2: during waking life. Across decades of work, sleep, especially non
53:18
Speaker 2: RM sleep with its low oscillations and spindles, has been
53:22
Speaker 2: repeatedly linked to the offline strengthening of newly encoded memories,
53:26
Speaker 2: while RIM and the broader overnight sequence appear to contribute
53:30
Speaker 2: in more selective and still debated ways depending on the
53:33
Speaker 2: memory system and task. The important shift here is conceptual
53:38
Speaker 2: memory is not simply a thing that brain stores in
53:41
Speaker 2: the moment and then leaves alone. According to the dominant
53:45
Speaker 2: system's consolidation picture, newly encoded experiences rely heavily at first
53:50
Speaker 2: on the hippocampus, but during sleep those traces can be
53:54
Speaker 2: reactivated and gradually redistributed or integrated with cortical networks. Recent
54:01
Speaker 2: reviews describe this nocturnal process in terms of coordinated interactions
54:06
Speaker 2: among cortical slow oscillations, thalamacordical sleep spindles, and hippocampal sharp
54:12
Speaker 2: wave ripples three distinct rhythms that appear to help time
54:17
Speaker 2: communication between memory systems while the person lies there feeling
54:21
Speaker 2: absent from the world. That coordination is one of the
54:24
Speaker 2: deepest ideas in the whole episode. Slow oscillations, especially prominent
54:30
Speaker 2: in nri M sleep, seem to provide broad temporal windows.
54:35
Speaker 2: Spindles occur within that larger framework, and hippocampal ripples are
54:39
Speaker 2: thought to carry reactivated memory content that can be communicated
54:43
Speaker 2: to cortex. In other words, the sleeping brain may be
54:47
Speaker 2: using nested rhythms to decide when recently encoded information gets replayed, stabilized,
54:53
Speaker 2: or reorganized. The point is not merely that sleep is
54:57
Speaker 2: good for memory. The point is that sleep may be
55:00
Speaker 2: rhythmically structured so that memory can be processed in time
55:03
Speaker 2: sensitive stages. That is where slow wave sleep takes on
55:08
Speaker 2: a second meaning. Earlier, we describe delta rich N three
55:12
Speaker 2: as the state of deepest ordinary withdrawal from the world,
55:15
Speaker 2: but from that standpoint of memory, deep sleep may also
55:18
Speaker 2: be one of the main conditions under which the brain
55:21
Speaker 2: performs large scale housekeeping. On recent experiences, reviews of slow
55:26
Speaker 2: oscillations and spindles argue that these rhythms play complementary roles
55:31
Speaker 2: in consolidation with natural sleep architecture itself, appearing optimized to
55:36
Speaker 2: support different kinds of memory processing across the night. Experimental
55:41
Speaker 2: work boosting slow oscillatory activity has even reported improvements in
55:45
Speaker 2: subsequent memory, suggesting that these rhythms and not just correlates
55:49
Speaker 2: of sleeping dependent consolidation, but may participate causially in it.
55:54
Speaker 2: Spindles are especially important in this story because they seem
55:57
Speaker 2: to do more than merely Mark and two human studies
56:01
Speaker 2: have linked spindle activity to both declarative and procedural learning.
56:05
Speaker 2: En work on overnight sleep has shown that spindle dynamics
56:08
Speaker 2: correlate with changes in hippocampal cortical memory representations. The night
56:14
Speaker 2: does not merely preserve the day, it may reshape it,
56:18
Speaker 2: and that reshaping may depend not on how many spindles occur,
56:22
Speaker 2: but on how precisely they are timed relative to slower rhythms.
56:26
Speaker 2: What matters is not only which rhythms are present, but
56:29
Speaker 2: how accurately they are nested in time. This also explains
56:33
Speaker 2: why a normal night cycles rather than simply drops into
56:36
Speaker 2: one deepest state and stays there. NM and RIM alternate
56:41
Speaker 2: across the night with more slow wave sleep earlier and
56:44
Speaker 2: longer RIM periods later, and many researchers think that sequence
56:48
Speaker 2: itself may matter. Different phases of sleep may support different
56:52
Speaker 2: forms of stabilization, integration, emotional calibration, or abstraction. That means
56:58
Speaker 2: the architecture of the night night is not redundant. Its
57:01
Speaker 2: order may be part of its function. So the strongest
57:05
Speaker 2: academic picture we have right now is not that the
57:07
Speaker 2: memory sleeps while we do.
57:10
Speaker 1: It is almost the reverse.
57:12
Speaker 2: While waking consciousness recedes, the brain appears to enter a
57:15
Speaker 2: regime in which traces of the day can be replayed, sorted,
57:19
Speaker 2: coupled to older knowledge, strengthened, pruned, or redistributed. Sleep does
57:24
Speaker 2: not protect memory by pausing interference from the outside world.
57:28
Speaker 2: It may actively transform memory through precisely time interactions among
57:33
Speaker 2: cortical and hippocampal rhythms. That gives sleep a far more
57:37
Speaker 2: serious place in the drama of consciousness than people usually granted.
57:41
Speaker 2: The night is not empty time between episodes of real life.
57:45
Speaker 2: The night is part of cognition itself. It is one
57:48
Speaker 2: of the periods on which the mind continues its work
57:50
Speaker 2: without the self being present to witness it, and once
57:54
Speaker 2: you realize that the next threshold becomes even more interesting
57:58
Speaker 2: because between waking and the day, and once you realize
58:03
Speaker 2: that the next threshold becomes even more interesting because between
58:07
Speaker 2: waking and deeper sleep there is a fragile zone where memory, imagery,
58:11
Speaker 2: and association can begin to mingle before full unconsciousness has arrived.
58:17
Speaker 1: If sleep is a.
58:18
Speaker 2: Journey through organized states, then hypnogogia is one of its
58:21
Speaker 2: strangest frontiers, the unstable border between wakefulness and sleep most
58:26
Speaker 2: closely associated with sleep onset, and especially the earliest phase
58:30
Speaker 2: of n one. In academic terms, hypnagogia is not just
58:34
Speaker 2: feeling sleepy. It is a transitional state in which waking
58:38
Speaker 2: cognition has not fully disappeared, but ordinary sensory anchoring and
58:42
Speaker 2: executive control have already begun to loosen. It is a
58:45
Speaker 2: phase in which sensory perceptions, spontaneous imagery, altered bodily feelings,
58:51
Speaker 2: and unusual cognitive intrusions can occur before full sleep has
58:55
Speaker 2: taken hold.
58:57
Speaker 1: This is why.
58:58
Speaker 2: Hypnagogia has such a peculiarly texture. It is often marked
59:02
Speaker 2: by flashes of imagery, drifting scenes, fragmentary voices, abrupt changes
59:08
Speaker 2: in bodily scale or position, sudden associative leaps, and those
59:12
Speaker 2: strange moments when thought no longer feels fully authored in
59:15
Speaker 2: the usual waking way. The drowsy mind can also show
59:20
Speaker 2: linguistic intrusions, unexpected anomalies entering the stream of inner speech,
59:25
Speaker 2: alongside more visual and perceptual phenomena. In other words, hypnagogias
59:30
Speaker 2: not merely reduced consciousness. It is reorganized consciousness where voluntary
59:34
Speaker 2: thought begins to give ground to emergent content. That state
59:39
Speaker 2: matters scientifically because it appears to sit at a special
59:43
Speaker 2: cognitive threshold. Even a brief period of sleep onset could
59:47
Speaker 2: markedly increase the probability of insight on hidden rule tasks
59:51
Speaker 2: and targeted dream Incubation work suggests that sleep onset may
59:55
Speaker 2: be a creative sweet spot. A period of en one's
59:59
Speaker 2: sleep can enhance later creative performance, especially when a prompted
1:00:02
Speaker 2: theme is successfully incorporated into the hypnagogic experience. This does
1:00:06
Speaker 2: not mean hypnogogia's magic prophecy or proof of paranormal access,
1:00:11
Speaker 2: but it does mean that the threshold into sleep is
1:00:13
Speaker 2: cognitively fertile. N one in hypnagogia appear to be states
1:00:17
Speaker 2: where associative divergence can increase, where dreamlike imagery can reflect
1:00:22
Speaker 2: recent waking concerns, and where the brain may temporarily become
1:00:26
Speaker 2: more willing to combine ideas that ordinary waking control keeps apart.
1:00:31
Speaker 2: That makes hypnagogia one of the best scientific bridges to
1:00:35
Speaker 2: the older human intuition that the edge of sleep is
1:00:38
Speaker 2: psychologically privileged, and that older intuition is worth lingering on.
1:00:43
Speaker 2: Long before electrophysiology, people notice that the moments just before
1:00:47
Speaker 2: sleep could produce symbols, visitations, solutions, warnings, and uncanny image
1:00:53
Speaker 2: events that did not feel identical to ordinary thought. The
1:00:58
Speaker 2: modern vocabulary is different, but the basic recognition is the same.
1:01:02
Speaker 2: There is a threshold where the mind becomes more permeable
1:01:05
Speaker 2: to internally generated material. Neuroscience does not validate the ancient
1:01:09
Speaker 2: metaphysics attached to that threshold, but it does confirm that
1:01:13
Speaker 2: this borderland is a distinct, immeasurable state, not just a
1:01:17
Speaker 2: vague poetic idea. There is also a deeper theoretical point here.
1:01:22
Speaker 2: Hypnogogia shows in miniature that consciousness is not simply on
1:01:26
Speaker 2: or off. It can destabilize by degrees. Agency can loosen
1:01:31
Speaker 2: before awareness disappears, perception can become eternally dominated before the
1:01:35
Speaker 2: sleeper is fully cut off from the world. Memory, fragments,
1:01:39
Speaker 2: day residue, bodily sensations, and fresh imagery can begin to
1:01:43
Speaker 2: interact while the self is still close enough to waking
1:01:47
Speaker 2: to remember the strangeness later. That is exactly what makes
1:01:51
Speaker 2: hypnogogia is so valuable for this episode. It is one
1:01:53
Speaker 2: of the clearest examples of the mind changing its rhythm
1:01:56
Speaker 2: before it fully changes its world. So hypnogogia is the
1:01:59
Speaker 2: border line of images, the unstable zone where waking thoughts sorphens,
1:02:04
Speaker 2: sensory control weakens, and the mind becomes unusually hospitable to fragments, symbols,
1:02:09
Speaker 2: and unexpected associations. It is not yet a dream in
1:02:13
Speaker 2: the full immersive sense, and it is no longer waking
1:02:16
Speaker 2: in the fully disciplined sense. It is the threshold itself,
1:02:20
Speaker 2: and once you recognize that, the next step almost presents
1:02:23
Speaker 2: itself on its own, because human beings do not merely
1:02:26
Speaker 2: stumble into that threshold by accident. In some cultures, they
1:02:30
Speaker 2: built rituals around it. And maybe that is the first
1:02:34
Speaker 2: real lesson of this entire journey. The mind is not
1:02:38
Speaker 2: fixed as we pretend it is. What we call waking
1:02:40
Speaker 2: consciousness is not some permanent throne from which the self
1:02:44
Speaker 2: rules without interruption. It is a condition, a temporary arrangement,
1:02:49
Speaker 2: a balancing act held together by timing, rhythm, sensory anchoring, memory, expectation,
1:02:55
Speaker 2: and the fragile continuity of attention. And every single whether
1:03:00
Speaker 2: we notice it or not, that arrangement begins to loosen.
1:03:04
Speaker 2: We drift, we descend. We pass the hard edges of
1:03:08
Speaker 2: daylight cognition into states where thought is no longer fully
1:03:12
Speaker 2: under command, where imagery begins to rise on its own,
1:03:15
Speaker 2: where memory, sensation, and symbols start to mix, and where
1:03:19
Speaker 2: the mind becomes something stranger than the ordinary language of
1:03:23
Speaker 2: being awake or sleep can easily describe. That is what
1:03:27
Speaker 2: makes hypnogogia so important, because hypnogogia is not just a curiosity,
1:03:32
Speaker 2: It is a revelation of process. It shows us in
1:03:35
Speaker 2: real time that consciousness does not vanish all at once.
1:03:39
Speaker 2: It changes texture, It destabilizes in layers. Agency loosens before
1:03:44
Speaker 2: awareness is gone, the world recedes, before dream fully takes over.
1:03:48
Speaker 2: The self is still there, just long enough to witness
1:03:51
Speaker 2: its own rearrangement, and once you see that, it becomes
1:03:55
Speaker 2: harder to think of the old human fascination with thresholds
1:03:58
Speaker 2: as mere superstition, because people have always known there was
1:04:02
Speaker 2: something different about the borderland, the edge of sleep, the
1:04:06
Speaker 2: image before the dream, the voice before unconsciousness, the moment
1:04:09
Speaker 2: when the ordinary mind softens and something else begins to move.
1:04:14
Speaker 2: Modern neuroscience gives us one language for that transition. All
1:04:18
Speaker 2: the cultures give us another, but both, in their own
1:04:21
Speaker 2: way are circling the same fact. There are states in
1:04:25
Speaker 2: which the mind becomes more permeable, more unstable, more symbolically alive,
1:04:30
Speaker 2: and more open to what rises from within. And that
1:04:34
Speaker 2: is where we are going to stop for part one.
1:04:36
Speaker 2: Because now we have followed the brain down to the
1:04:38
Speaker 2: threshold itself. The next question is no longer what these
1:04:41
Speaker 2: rhythms are. The next question is what human beings have
1:04:44
Speaker 2: done with them. Because in the ancient world people did
1:04:48
Speaker 2: not merely notice this borderland. They built rights around it,
1:04:52
Speaker 2: they sanctified it, they slept inside it on purpose. And
1:04:56
Speaker 2: that is where we will pick up next time. Thank
1:05:00
Speaker 2: you all for listening, and hope you enjoyed. And until
1:05:02
Speaker 2: the next one, everybody be well