Transcript

7.17.26 · History Hour

0:02
Speaker 1: Again. There had been a bright frost in the hollow
0:07
Speaker 1: below the dam, and the sun was not up long
0:10
Speaker 1: before some storm clouds rolled in from the southeast. By
0:15
Speaker 1: late afternoon, a sharp, gusty wind was blowing down from
0:18
Speaker 1: the mountains, flattening the long grass along the lake shore
0:22
Speaker 1: and kicking up tiny white caps out in the center
0:26
Speaker 1: of the lake. The trees that crowded the hillside behind
0:30
Speaker 1: the summer colony began tossing back and forth. Broken branches
0:36
Speaker 1: and leaves whipped through the air, and at the immense
0:40
Speaker 1: framed clubhouse that stood at the water's edge. Halfway among
0:45
Speaker 1: the cottages, blue wood smoke trailed from great brick chimneys
0:52
Speaker 1: and vanished in the vast swirls heading into the wind.
0:57
Speaker 1: The colony was known as the South Fork Fishing and
1:01
Speaker 1: Hunting Club. It was a private summer resort on the
1:05
Speaker 1: western shore of a mountain lake in Cambria County, Pennsylvania,
1:10
Speaker 1: about halfway between the crest of the Allegheny Range and
1:13
Speaker 1: the city of Johnstown. On the afternoon of Thursday May thirtieth,
1:19
Speaker 1: eighteen eighty nine, the club was not quite ten years old,
1:25
Speaker 1: with its gayly painted buildings, its neat lawns and well
1:30
Speaker 1: attended flower beds. It looked spanking new and in the gray,
1:35
Speaker 1: stormy half light, slightly out of season. Welcome. This is
1:45
Speaker 1: Radio Eye's history show and I'm your host and reader
1:48
Speaker 1: for today, Joseph Bolt, so glad to be with you
1:51
Speaker 1: for this time. Before we begin, as always, want to
1:56
Speaker 1: remind you that Radio Eye is listener driven. That means
1:59
Speaker 1: you and we welcome any of your comments or suggestions
2:03
Speaker 1: about our programming. So if you have thoughts, please call
2:07
Speaker 1: us at eight five nine four two two six three
2:11
Speaker 1: nine zero and let us know what you're thinking. Radiois,
2:16
Speaker 1: you know, as a reading service intended for people who
2:19
Speaker 1: are blind or have other disabilities and make it difficult
2:22
Speaker 1: to read printed material. I'll cite the sources from our
2:26
Speaker 1: readings as we go along, So let's continue with the story.
2:36
Speaker 1: On a cool May afternoon in eighteen eighty nine, the
2:41
Speaker 1: residents of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, heard a thunderous roar as a
2:46
Speaker 1: man made disaster swept through the town. It would be
2:52
Speaker 1: the most devastating flood in the United States in the
2:56
Speaker 1: nineteenth century. Founded in the seventeen ninety four, Johnstown began
3:04
Speaker 1: to prosper with the building of the Pennsylvania Mainline Canal
3:08
Speaker 1: in eighteen thirty four. In the arrival of the Pennsylvania
3:12
Speaker 1: Railroad in the Cambria Iron Company in the eighteen fifties,
3:19
Speaker 1: there was one slight drawback to living in the city.
3:23
Speaker 1: Johnstown had been built on a floodplain at the Little
3:28
Speaker 1: Connamah River in Stoney Creek Fork. Because the growing city
3:34
Speaker 1: had increased runoff from the surrounding hills by stripping them
3:38
Speaker 1: of wood, and had narrowed the river banks to gain
3:42
Speaker 1: building space, heavy annual rains had caused more flooding in
3:48
Speaker 1: recent years. The South Fork Dam was built between eighteen
3:54
Speaker 1: thirty eight and eighteen fifty three by the Commonwealth of
3:57
Speaker 1: Pennsylvania to provide water for the western division of the
4:01
Speaker 1: Pennsylvania main Line Canal operation between Johnstown and Pittsburgh. At
4:08
Speaker 1: the time, it was the largest earth dam in the nation.
4:18
Speaker 1: Though the dam was built according to accepted engineering practices,
4:23
Speaker 1: the canal system was obsolete by the time it was
4:26
Speaker 1: completed in eighteen fifty three. Located some fourteen miles east
4:33
Speaker 1: of Johnstown at a point where the South Fork branch
4:36
Speaker 1: of the Little Connamah River and in several mountain streams converged.
4:42
Speaker 1: The dam created what was at the time one of
4:44
Speaker 1: the largest artificial lakes in the nation, more than two
4:48
Speaker 1: miles long and nearly a mile wide. In some places,
4:54
Speaker 1: Lake Connamah was held by the dam on the side
4:58
Speaker 1: of a mountain four hundred and fifty feet higher than Johnstown.
5:05
Speaker 1: The Pennsylvania Railroad Company purchased the entire main line works
5:10
Speaker 1: in eighteen fifty seven and left the dam and the
5:13
Speaker 1: reservoir virtually unattended. In eighteen sixty two, a break occurred
5:20
Speaker 1: near the discharge pipes, but little damage resulted because the
5:25
Speaker 1: water level was so low. Afterward, the railroad abandoned the dam,
5:32
Speaker 1: and it deteriorated. In eighteen seventy nine, wealthy Pittsburgh industrialists,
5:40
Speaker 1: including men such as Andrew Carnegie and Andrew Mellon, formed
5:46
Speaker 1: the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club and bought the
5:51
Speaker 1: dam and reservoir for use as an exclusive and somewhat
5:56
Speaker 1: secret summer resort. By eighteen eighty one, the dam had
6:03
Speaker 1: been repaired without the benefit of an engineer, and the
6:07
Speaker 1: reservoir filled to form the now nearly three mile long
6:12
Speaker 1: Lake Connemaw. A club house with forty seven rooms fronted
6:18
Speaker 1: the lake. From its large porch, members could watch the
6:23
Speaker 1: club's two steam yachts setting off on excursion trips. Several
6:29
Speaker 1: club members built large cottages near by. For the next
6:33
Speaker 1: eight years, the summer resort offered fishing, hunting, boating, and
6:38
Speaker 1: other recreational opportunities for the club members. Over the years,
6:44
Speaker 1: some people worried about the seventy two foot high earthen dam,
6:48
Speaker 1: one of the largest earthen dams in the world, causing
6:52
Speaker 1: one resident to remark, no one could see the immense
6:56
Speaker 1: height to which that artificial dam had been built without
7:00
Speaker 1: fearing the tremendous power of the water behind it in quote.
7:08
Speaker 1: Others wondered why the dam had not been strengthened, as
7:12
Speaker 1: it certainly had become weak, making Johnstown vulnerable. Daniel J. Morrile,
7:22
Speaker 1: president of the Cambria Iron Company, was among those worried
7:26
Speaker 1: about the dam and repeatedly requested that it be strengthened. However,
7:32
Speaker 1: Benjamin Ruff, the first president of the South Fork Club, responded, quote,
7:37
Speaker 1: you and your people are in no danger from our enterprise.
7:42
Speaker 1: End quote. In the end, nothing was done, and most
7:49
Speaker 1: Johnstown residents talked less and less about it. Others realizing
7:57
Speaker 1: their continuing vulnerability called the dam the sword that hanging
8:04
Speaker 1: over Johnstown. By eighteen eighty nine, Johnstown had grown to
8:14
Speaker 1: a town of thirty thousand German and Welsh immigrants, known
8:19
Speaker 1: for the steely quality it produced. On May thirty, eighteen
8:27
Speaker 1: eighty nine, unusually heavy rains hit the area. When the
8:33
Speaker 1: storm struck western Pennsylvania, it was the worst downpour ever
8:38
Speaker 1: recorded for that section of the country. It was estimated
8:42
Speaker 1: that six to eight inches of rain fell in twenty
8:46
Speaker 1: four hours, and on the mountains there were places where
8:51
Speaker 1: the fall was ten inches. The total rainfall of the
8:57
Speaker 1: South Fork Fishing and Hunting Company or Club brother would
9:01
Speaker 1: be somewhere near seven inches. The citizens of Johnstown were
9:07
Speaker 1: worn three times of a possible impending flood if the
9:11
Speaker 1: dam didn't hold. But that had been the case every
9:18
Speaker 1: spring for so many years that the supposed threat had
9:23
Speaker 1: become a standing joke around town. And wasn't the dam
9:29
Speaker 1: being maintained by some of America's richest and most powerful men.
9:36
Speaker 1: While some people in Johnstown made the usual preparations for flooding,
9:42
Speaker 1: John Park, the Club engineer at the South Fork Dam,
9:47
Speaker 1: new things were more serious. Watching the lake rise an
9:52
Speaker 1: inch every ten minutes. He knew that once the water
9:57
Speaker 1: ran over the top of the earth and dam, it
10:00
Speaker 1: would cut through it like a knife and the whole
10:03
Speaker 1: thing would go. His workers desperately tried to dig another
10:10
Speaker 1: spillway and increase the dam's height, but the water was
10:15
Speaker 1: rising too fast. Park was caught in a painful dilemma.
10:22
Speaker 1: He could cut through the end of the dam where
10:24
Speaker 1: the pressure was less, so it would give way more
10:29
Speaker 1: slowly and reduce the water's destructive force. But afterward, how
10:36
Speaker 1: could he prove that the dam would have gone anyway?
10:41
Speaker 1: People would know only that he was the one who
10:44
Speaker 1: destroyed the dam and flooded the valley, so he chose
10:49
Speaker 1: not to do it. On the chilly, wet afternoon of
10:55
Speaker 1: May thirty first, the dam started to go at three ten.
11:03
Speaker 1: At four oh seven pm, Johnstown inhabitants heard a low
11:08
Speaker 1: rumble that grew to a quote roar like thunder end quote.
11:17
Speaker 1: Some knew immediately what had happened. After a night of
11:22
Speaker 1: heavy rains, South Fork Dam had finally broken, sending twenty
11:29
Speaker 1: million tons of water crashing down the narrow valley. The
11:38
Speaker 1: water took its natural course, dropping four hundred and fifty
11:43
Speaker 1: feet over fourteen miles, at times reaching heights of seventy
11:49
Speaker 1: to seventy five feet and reaching speeds of forty miles
11:54
Speaker 1: per hour. In fifty seven minutes, the way would engulf
12:02
Speaker 1: the town. Most never saw anything until the thirty six
12:09
Speaker 1: foot wall of water, already boiling with vast chunks of debris,
12:16
Speaker 1: rolled over them at forty miles per hour, consuming everything
12:20
Speaker 1: in its path. Those who did see it said it
12:25
Speaker 1: quote snapped off trees like pipe stems in quote. Also
12:33
Speaker 1: quote crushed houses like eggshells, and threw around locomotives like
12:40
Speaker 1: so much chafe end quote. A violet wind preceded it,
12:47
Speaker 1: blowing down small buildings. Making the wave even more terrifying
12:54
Speaker 1: was the black pall of smoke and steam that hung
12:57
Speaker 1: over it, the death miss that was remembered by survivors.
13:06
Speaker 1: Thousands of people desperately tried to escape the wave, but
13:11
Speaker 1: they were slowed, as in a nightmare, by the two
13:15
Speaker 1: to seven feet of water already covering parts of town.
13:21
Speaker 1: One observer from a hill above the towns of the
13:25
Speaker 1: streets quote grew black with people running for their lives
13:29
Speaker 1: end quote. Some remembered reaching the hills and pulling themselves
13:35
Speaker 1: out of the flood path seconds before it overtook them.
13:41
Speaker 1: Those caught by the wave found themselves swept up in
13:44
Speaker 1: a torrent of oily yellow brown water, surrounded by tons
13:50
Speaker 1: of grinding debris, which crushed some and provided rafts for
13:57
Speaker 1: others became helplessly entangled in miles of barbed wire from
14:04
Speaker 1: destroyed wireworks. When the waves struck people indoors raced upstairs
14:11
Speaker 1: seconds ahead of the rising water, reaching a third story
14:16
Speaker 1: in many buildings. Some never had a chance, as homes
14:22
Speaker 1: were immediately crushed or ripped from foundations and added to
14:28
Speaker 1: the churning rubble, ending up hundreds of miles or rather
14:33
Speaker 1: yards away. Everywhere, people were hanging from rafters or clinging
14:40
Speaker 1: to rooftops as railcars were swept downstream, frantically trying to
14:47
Speaker 1: keep their balance as their rafts pitched in the flood.
14:53
Speaker 1: It was over in ten minutes, but the worst was
14:57
Speaker 1: still to come for some thousands of people huddled in
15:01
Speaker 1: attics or on the roofs of buildings which stood the
15:04
Speaker 1: initial wave, but they were still threatened by the twenty
15:07
Speaker 1: foot current, tearing at the buildings and jamming tons of
15:12
Speaker 1: debris against them. In the growing darkness, they watched other
15:16
Speaker 1: buildings being pulled down, not knowing if theirs would last
15:19
Speaker 1: the night. But the most harrowing experience for hundreds came
15:25
Speaker 1: at the old Stone railroad bridge below the junction of
15:29
Speaker 1: the rivers. Thousands of tons of debris scrapped from the valley,
15:36
Speaker 1: along with a good part of Johnstown, piled up against
15:39
Speaker 1: the arches. The forty five acre masts held buildings, machinery,
15:46
Speaker 1: hundreds of freight cars, fifty miles of track, bridge sections, boilers,
15:52
Speaker 1: telephone poles, trees, animals, and five to six hundred humans.
16:00
Speaker 1: The oil soaked jam was immovable, held against the bridge
16:05
Speaker 1: by the powerful current and bound tightly by the barbed wire.
16:11
Speaker 1: Those who were able began scrambling over the heap toward shore,
16:18
Speaker 1: but many were trapped in the wreckage, some still hopelessly
16:22
Speaker 1: hung up in the barbed wire, unable to move. Then
16:26
Speaker 1: the oil caught fire. As rescuers worked in the dark
16:30
Speaker 1: to free people, the flames spread over the whole mass,
16:34
Speaker 1: burning with all the fury of hell. According to a
16:37
Speaker 1: Johnstown newspaper account, eighty people died at the bridge, some
16:43
Speaker 1: still in their own homes. The following day, Survivors were
16:47
Speaker 1: unsettled by the eerie silence hanging over the city. During
16:52
Speaker 1: the night, the waters receded, revealing vast heaps of mud
16:58
Speaker 1: and rubble filled street Where there were still streets up
17:05
Speaker 1: to the third story. Entire blocks of buildings had been raised.
17:11
Speaker 1: Hundreds alive and dead were buried beneath the ravaged city.
17:18
Speaker 1: As everyone had dreaded, disease followed in the wake of
17:22
Speaker 1: the flood, and typhoid had added forty more lives to
17:26
Speaker 1: the two thousand, two hundred and nine that had already died,
17:30
Speaker 1: though seven hundred and fifty of them were never identified
17:34
Speaker 1: and hundreds of the missing were never found. The dead
17:39
Speaker 1: included ninety nine entire families, including three hundred and ninety
17:45
Speaker 1: six children. The waters carried some bodies as far as Cincinnati,
17:52
Speaker 1: three hundred miles away. The water wiped out four square
17:59
Speaker 1: miles of downtown Johnstown, destroyed sixteen hundred homes, and cost
18:05
Speaker 1: seventeen million dollars worth of property damage, with floodlines reaching
18:11
Speaker 1: up to eighty nine feet above the normal river level
18:16
Speaker 1: in some places, emergency morgues and hospitals were set up,
18:21
Speaker 1: and commissaries distributed food and clothing. The nation responded to
18:26
Speaker 1: the disaster with a spontaneous outpouring of time, money, food,
18:30
Speaker 1: and clothing. Contributions from the United States and abroad totaled
18:35
Speaker 1: over three million, seven hundred thousand. The flood also provided
18:41
Speaker 1: the newly formed American Red Cross, under the leadership of
18:45
Speaker 1: Clara Barton, with its first test. Barton and her staff
18:50
Speaker 1: of fifty doctors and nurses arrived in Johnstown five days
18:54
Speaker 1: after the flood, and after surveying the scene, she set
18:58
Speaker 1: up hospital tents and built six Red Cross hotels for
19:03
Speaker 1: the homeless. Barton and her crew remained in Johnstown until October,
19:08
Speaker 1: when the city could finally begin rebuilding. It took five
19:13
Speaker 1: years to rebuild the community, but unfortunately, nature proved to
19:17
Speaker 1: be an unstoppable force. Johnstown faced significant disastrous flooding again
19:24
Speaker 1: in nineteen thirty six and later in nineteen seventy seven,
19:29
Speaker 1: though neither event was comparable to the absolute destruction of
19:34
Speaker 1: the flood of eighteen eighty nine. Today, the Johnstown Flood
19:39
Speaker 1: National Memorial in South Fork, Pennsylvania, commemorates the most devastating
19:45
Speaker 1: flood of the nineteenth century in the United States and
19:49
Speaker 1: the greatest national catastrophe in the post Civil War era.
19:53
Speaker 1: It is an example of what can happen when people
19:56
Speaker 1: disregard the principles of engineering in hydrology. The flood has
20:01
Speaker 1: produced a vast body of literature with important lessons for
20:05
Speaker 1: environmental management today. At present, all that remains of the
20:11
Speaker 1: historic earthen dam, originally about nine hundred feet long and
20:15
Speaker 1: seventy five feet high, are the north and south of buttments,
20:20
Speaker 1: the spillway cut around the north abutment to carry off
20:24
Speaker 1: excess water, and a few remnants of wood and culvert
20:30
Speaker 1: foundation stones representing the location of the control mechanism. That
20:39
Speaker 1: story came from Legends America dot com The Johnstown, PA
20:47
Speaker 1: Flood of eighteen eighty nine, written by Kathy Alexander, updated
20:52
Speaker 1: March of twenty twenty six, and from all That's Interesting
20:55
Speaker 1: dot com. The catastrophic Story of the Johnstown Flood that
20:59
Speaker 1: washed away in an entire PA town in eighteen eighty nine,
21:03
Speaker 1: written by Austin Harvey, edited by Jacqueline Angelus, updated in
21:08
Speaker 1: May of twenty twenty five, and from the book The
21:11
Speaker 1: Johnstown Flood by David McCullough, printed by Simon and Schuster Paperbacks,
21:17
Speaker 1: New York, New York in nineteen sixty eight. This next
21:22
Speaker 1: story comes from history dot com. How America's Most Powerful
21:26
Speaker 1: Men caused America's most deadly flood written by Aaron Blake Moore,
21:30
Speaker 1: updated in March of twenty twenty six, and from appalachianhistory
21:34
Speaker 1: dot Net. I Believe the damn has burst written by
21:39
Speaker 1: Dave Tabla in May of twenty twenty one. For years,
21:43
Speaker 1: the Gilded Age's most powerful industrialists gathered at Lake Conomah,
21:48
Speaker 1: an idyllic body of water made possible by Pennsylvania South
21:52
Speaker 1: Fork Dam. Their secret retreat was a place to fish, hunt,
21:56
Speaker 1: and consolidate their power. Disaster was far from the mind
22:02
Speaker 1: of Pennsylvania magnets like Andrew Carnegie, Andrew Mellon, and Henry
22:08
Speaker 1: Clay Frick, which are wren. They joined rather the secretive
22:13
Speaker 1: South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Founded in eighteen seventy nine.
22:19
Speaker 1: The club was designated to give the most powerful men
22:23
Speaker 1: in Pennsylvania a quiet retreat, a place to enjoy the
22:27
Speaker 1: magnificent wealth that they had in the steel, railroad and
22:31
Speaker 1: other industries. The club owned a private artificial lake where
22:37
Speaker 1: they gathered in a clubhouse in private cottages to mingle
22:40
Speaker 1: and enjoy the pleasures of nature, but the lake where
22:46
Speaker 1: so much wealth and power gathered was built on a
22:48
Speaker 1: shaky foundation. Before the club bought it, the unnamed reservoir
22:53
Speaker 1: was part of Pennsylvania's canal system. Once it came into
22:58
Speaker 1: the hands of the South Fork Fishing an Hunting Club,
23:01
Speaker 1: they modified it to their recreational interest. They added a
23:05
Speaker 1: fish screen onto the spillway, the structure built to keep
23:10
Speaker 1: water from building up too high and straining the dam,
23:14
Speaker 1: And most importantly of all, they lowered the dam, which
23:17
Speaker 1: sat right above Johnstown. When an unusually strong storm hit
23:22
Speaker 1: the area on May twenty eight, eighteen eighty nine, pounding
23:25
Speaker 1: the area with between six and ten inches of water
23:28
Speaker 1: in twenty four hours, water levels that the dam began
23:31
Speaker 1: to rise on May thirty. First, Elias Unger, who managed
23:37
Speaker 1: the club, looked outside and began to worry about the
23:40
Speaker 1: rising waters. He supervised a group of Italian laborers as
23:47
Speaker 1: they frantically dug a new spillway. They were too late,
23:52
Speaker 1: as the dam burst. A thirty to forty foot high
23:55
Speaker 1: wave rushed the fourteen miles toward Johnstown. Was as wide
24:00
Speaker 1: as the Mississippi River and three times more powerful than
24:04
Speaker 1: the Niagara Falls. As it hit John'stown. All hell broke
24:09
Speaker 1: Loose locomotives weighing one hundred and seventy thousand pounds were
24:14
Speaker 1: wrenched from railroad tracks and swept thousands of feet. Debris
24:19
Speaker 1: piled up forty feet high, caught fire as it hit
24:23
Speaker 1: bridges and buildings. People were sucked from buildings and tossed
24:27
Speaker 1: into a raging torrent. It was like the Day of Judgment.
24:33
Speaker 1: I have seen pictures in books, says Gertrude Quinn slatterly.
24:41
Speaker 1: She goes on to say pandemonium had broken loose, screams cries,
24:46
Speaker 1: and people were running pets and people struggled to keep
24:51
Speaker 1: the struggle the rushing waters. But when the wall of
24:55
Speaker 1: water arrived, they were helpless. It was a moving mass
25:00
Speaker 1: black with houses, trees, boulders, logs and rafters coming down
25:04
Speaker 1: like an avalanche, she wrote. When the waters finally receded,
25:09
Speaker 1: the extent of the damage became clear. According to the
25:13
Speaker 1: Johnstown Area Heritage Association, two thousand, two hundred nine people died.
25:21
Speaker 1: Among the dead were ninety nine entire families. Seventeen million
25:25
Speaker 1: dollars in damage included sixteen hundred obliterated homes in four
25:32
Speaker 1: square miles of complete destruction. The world rushed to help.
25:38
Speaker 1: The American Red Cross, led by Clara Barton, worked tirelessly
25:43
Speaker 1: to help injured and homeless residents in its first major initiative,
25:48
Speaker 1: and workers like morticians and builders came from all over
25:52
Speaker 1: the country. It was the deadliest non hurricane flood in
25:56
Speaker 1: American history, and people wanted answers. However, the power industrialists
26:01
Speaker 1: whose modifications had caused the flood were never held legally accountable.
26:07
Speaker 1: The millionaires of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club
26:10
Speaker 1: never returned to the empty lake bed that was once
26:13
Speaker 1: their grand resort. The lodge fell into disrepair, became a
26:17
Speaker 1: sanitarium for a while, and then a run down bar
26:21
Speaker 1: and grille where nobody talks much about the flood. In court,
26:26
Speaker 1: the millionaires claimed that they only lowered the dam by
26:30
Speaker 1: one foot and that the flood was an act of God.
26:33
Speaker 1: Individuals who sued all lost in court, and some even
26:37
Speaker 1: went bankrupt, though the American legal system soon adopted precedents
26:42
Speaker 1: that made it possible to hold defendants liable for their
26:45
Speaker 1: modifications to Land. The magnets behind the Johnston Johnstown flood
26:53
Speaker 1: walked off scot free. Only a few of the club members,
26:58
Speaker 1: most notably Andrew Karnag, are known to have contributed to
27:01
Speaker 1: the relief effort. Nobody had seemed was willing to challenge
27:06
Speaker 1: America's most powerful men. Only in nineteen thirteen did researchers
27:13
Speaker 1: from the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown find out the
27:16
Speaker 1: real truth about the club's claims. With the help of
27:19
Speaker 1: hydrological research and advance mapping, they determine the contrary to
27:24
Speaker 1: the club's claims, the dam had been lowered by three feet,
27:27
Speaker 1: not one, and that the changes reduced the dam's ability
27:30
Speaker 1: to discharge stormwater by half. It turns out that the
27:34
Speaker 1: flood could actually have been prevented if only the magnets
27:37
Speaker 1: of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club had been
27:40
Speaker 1: willing to trade in a bit of their leisure for
27:43
Speaker 1: the safety of the town below. Well, that about does
27:51
Speaker 1: it for today's reading of RADIOI History. I sure hope
27:55
Speaker 1: you enjoyed today's program. I thank you for listening and
28:00
Speaker 1: giving me your time. To day, I'm your host, Joseph Bolt,
28:05
Speaker 1: and I'll be back another time for Radio Eye History.
28:10
Speaker 1: Until then, happy trails to you.