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04 - Nicomachean Ethics - Aristotle · The Philosophy Insights Collection

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Book four, Chapter one. In the next place, let us speak concerning
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liberality, but it appears to be a medium about riches. For the liberal
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man is praised not in warlike concerns, nor in those things in which the
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temperate man is praised, nor again in judicial affairs, but in the giving
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and receiving of riches, and more in the giving than in the receiving.
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We call, however, riches everything the worth of which is measured by money.
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But prodigality and illiberality are excesses and defects about riches, And we always,
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indeed ascribe illiberality to those who pay more attention to riches than is proper.
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But combining we sometimes attribute prodigality to the intemperate, for we call both
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the incontinent and those who consume their proper in intemperance prodigals. Hence, men
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of this description appear to be most deprived, for at one and the same
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time they have many vices. They are, not, however, appropriately denominated,
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for he is a prodigal who has one certain vice, viz. The
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consumption of his property. For he is a prodigal who is destroyed through himself,
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since the consumption of his property appears to be a certain destruction of himself,
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as through this the means of living are obtained. In this way,
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Therefore we consider prodigality with respect to those things, however, of which there
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is a certain use, it is possible to use them well or ill.
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But wealth is among the number of things useful, and he uses everything in
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the best manner, who possesses the virtue pertaining to each thing. He therefore
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will use wealth in the best manner, who has the virtue pertaining riches,
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and he is the liberal man. The use, however, of riches,
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appears to be expense and donation, but the accepting and preservation of riches is
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rather possession. Hence, it is more the province of a liberal man to
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give to those to whom it is proper, than to receive, whence it
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is proper, and not to receive whence it is not proper. For it
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is more the province of virtue to benefit than to be benefited, and to
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perform things which are beautiful than not to perform things which are base. It
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is not, however, a manifest that to giving, to benefit and to
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act beautifully are consequent, but to receiving, to be benefited or not to
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act basely. Thanks also are presented to the giver, but not to the
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receiver, and praise is rather bestowed on the former than the latter. It
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is likewise more easy not to receive than to give, for men are less
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willing to bestow what is their own than not to receive what belongs to another.
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Those also who bestow are called liberal. But those who do not receive
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are not praised for liberality, but are no less praised for justice. Those,
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however, who receive, are not very much praised. But of all
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those who are loved on account of virtue, the liberal are nearly beloved the
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most, for they benefit others. And this consists in giving. The actions,
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however, according to virtue, are beautiful and are for the sake of
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the beautiful. The liberal man therefore gives for the sake of the beautiful,
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and gives rightly. For he gives to those to whom it is proper,
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and such things as are proper, and when it is proper, and whatever
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other particulars are consequent to giving rightly. And this he does either delectably or
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without pain. For that which is conformable to virtue is delectable or without pain,
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but is in the smallest degree painful. But he who gives to those
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to whom it is not proper, or not for the sake of the beautiful,
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but from some other cause, is not liberal, but must be called
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by some other name. Nor is he liberal who gives with pain, for
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such a one would prefer riches to a beautiful action. But this is not
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the province of a liberal man. Nor does the liberal man receive from whence
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it is not proper to receive, For neither is such a kind of receiving
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the province of one who does not honor riches. Neither will the liberal man
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be readily disposed to ask a favor, for it is not the province of
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him who benefits to be benefited easily. But he will take whence it is
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proper, as for instance, from his own possessions, not as a thing
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beautiful, but as necessary in order that he may have the means of giving.
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Nor will he neglect his own affairs because he wishes through these to supply
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the wants of certain persons. Nor will he give to any casual persons in
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order that he may have to give to those to whom it is proper.
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And when it is proper and where it is beautiful to give, it is
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likewise very much the province of a liberal man, so to excede in giving,
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as to leave but little for himself, For it is the property of
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a liberal man not to consider himself. But liberality is denominated according to the
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property which is possessed. For the liberal does not consist in the multitude of
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gifts, but in the habit of the giver. And this habit gives according
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to the means of giving. Nothing, however, hinders but that he may
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be a more liberal man, who gives fewer things if he gives them from
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less means. But those persons appear to be more liberal who have not acquired
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property themselves, but have received it from others, for they have had no
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experience of want. And all men are more attached to their own works,
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as is evident in parents and poets. It is not, however, easy
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for the liberal man to be rich, since he is neither anxious to receive
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nor preserve wealth, but is more disposed to give, and does not honor
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riches on their own account but for the sake of giving. Hence, also
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fortune is accused because those who most deserve to be are in the smallest degree
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wealthy. This, however, does not happen unreasonably, for it is not
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possible that he should be rich who pays no attention to the means of obtaining
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wealth, as is also the case in other things. Nevertheless, the liberal
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man will not give to those to whom he ought not, nor when he
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ought not, and other things of the like kind, for if he did,
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he would no longer act conformably to liberality, and by thus consuming his
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wealth improperly, he would not have the means of giving to those to whom
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he ought to give. For as we have said, he is a liberal
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man who spends according to his property and on things on which he ought to
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spend. But he who exceeds his means in spending is a prodigal. Hence
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we do not call tyrants prodigals, for it does not seem to be easy
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by gifts and expenses to exceed the abundance of their possessions. Since therefore liberality
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is a medium which is conversant about giving and receiving riches, the liberal man
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will give and spend on things on which he ought and as much as he
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ought, as well in small things as in great and he will thus act
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willingly and with pleasure, he will likewise receive whence it is proper, and
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such things as he ought to receive. For since this virtue is a medium
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about giving and receiving, he will do both these in such a way as
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is proper, Since a receiving of this kind is consequent to giving equitably.
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But a receiving which is not of this kind is the contrary. Things therefore,
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which are consequent may subsist together in the same thing, but it is
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evident that contraries cannot. But if it should happen to the liberal man that
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he should spend beyond what he ought and beyond what is becoming, he will
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be pained, yet moderately and in such a manner as is proper, for
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it is the province of virtue to be pleased and pained with those things with
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which it is proper to be so, and in such a way as is
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proper. The liberal man also is very pliable in pecuniary contracts, for he
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may be injured since he does not honor riches, and he is more indignant
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if he has not spent what he ought than pained if he has spent what
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he ought not, for he does not assent to symonides. But the prodigal
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heirs also in these things, for he is neither pleased nor pained with things
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with which he ought, nor as he ought. But this will be more
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evident as we proceed. It has, however, been observed by us that
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prodigality and illiberality are excesses and defects, and in two things, viz.
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In giving and receiving, for we place expense in the same class with giving.
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Prodigality therefore exceeds in giving and not receiving, but it fails in receiving,
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and illiberality fails indeed in giving, but exceeds in receiving, except in
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small things. The peculiarities therefore of prodigality cannot be very much conjoined, for
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it is not easy for him who receives nothing to give to every one,
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since the property of those private individuals rapidly fails, who also appear to be
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prodigals. For a man of this description does seem to be better, though
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not much than the illiberal man, for he is easily cured by age and
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by want, and may arrive at the medium. For he has the properties
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of the liberal man, since he gives and does not receive yet, neither
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as he ought, nor in a becoming manner. If therefore he should happen
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to be accustomed to this, or in some other way should be changed,
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he would become liberal, for he would give to those to whom it is
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proper, and would not receive whence it is not proper. Hence, the
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prodigal does not appear to be depraved in his manners, for it is not
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the property of a bad or ignoble, but of a stupid man to exceed
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in giving and not receiving. But he who is prodigal after this manner,
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appears to be much better than the illiberal man, for the above mentioned reasons,
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and also because the one benefits many, but the other no one,
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and not even himself. The multitude of prodigals, however, as we have
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said, receive whence they ought not, and according to this are illiberal.
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But they become prompt to receive because through being willing to spend, they are
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unable to do this with facility, for the means of spending rapidly fail them.
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Hence they are compelled to procure money elsewhere. But at the same time,
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because they pay no attention to the beautiful inconduct. They receive negligently and
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from every one indiscriminately, for they desire to give, but it is of
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no consequence to them how or whence they give. On this account, neither
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are their gifts liberal, for they are not beautiful, nor for the sake
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of this very thing, the beautiful in conduct. Nor are they bestowed as
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they ought to be. But sometimes they cause those to be rich who ought
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to be poor, and give nothing to men whose manners are moderate, but
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bestow much on flatterers or those who are the means of procuring them any other
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pleasures. Hence, also most of them are intemperate, for they spend their
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money easily, and likewise spend profusely on things of an intemperate nature. And
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because they do not live with a view to the beautiful inconduct, they incline
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to pleasures. The prodigal, therefore, unless he is corrected, falls into
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these vices. But by care and diligence, he may arrive at the medium
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and to what is becoming in conduct. Illiberality, however, is incurable,
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for old age and every infirmity appear to render men illiberal, and it is
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more congenial to them than prodigality for the multitude are more desirous of gain then
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disposed to give. Illiberality, likewise extends widely and is multiform, since there
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appears to be many modes of it, for consisting in two things, a
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deficiency in giving and excess in receiving. It is not wholly and entirely present
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with all illiberal men, but sometimes it is divided, and some indeed exceed
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in receiving, but others are deficient in giving. For all, those to
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whom such appellations apply as niggardly, tenacious, and sordid, are deficient in
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giving. But they do not desire the property of others, nor do they
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wish to receive. Some indeed, through a certain probity and an avoidance of
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base conduct, for some of them seem to take care of their own property,
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or at least say that they do so, in order that they may
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not at any time be compelled to do anything base. Of these characters,
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however, the skin flint, and every one of the like kind is so
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denominated from giving to no one in excess. But others of these abstain from
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property which is not their own through fear, because it is not easy for
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him who takes what belongs to others, to preserve his own property unviolated.
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Hence they are disposed neither to receive nor give others again exceed in receiving in
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consequence of receiving on all sides and everything, such as those who perform illiberal
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works together with panders, usurers, gamesters, sharpers, and other depredators,
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and those who, for the sake of a little subject themselves to great infamy.
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For all these receive whence they ought not, and what they ought not.
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The acquisition, however, of base gain, appears to be common to
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these, for all of them endure disgrace for the sake of gain, and
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this small. For we do not call those illiberal who receive great things whence
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they ought not, and such as they ought not, as for instance,
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tyrants, the subverters of cities, and the plunderers of temples. But we
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rather call them depraved and impious and unjust. The gamester, indeed, the
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highwaymen and the sharper are among the number of illiberal characters, for they are
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addicted to base gain, since for the sake of gain they devote themselves to
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these employments and endure disgraces. And some, indeed expose themselves to the greatest
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dangers for the sake of what they may get, but others gain something from
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their friends, to whom they ought to give. Both these their therefor,
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since they wish to enrich themselves whence they ought not, are addicted to base
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gain, And all such receivings are illiberal. Reasonably, also, is illiberality
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said to be contrary to liberality, for it is a greater evil than prodigality,
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and men err more in this than in prodigality, of which we have
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spoken above. And thus much concerning liberality and the opposite vices Chapter two,
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it would seem to follow that we should, in the next place discuss magnificence,
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for it also appears to be a certain virtue which is conversant with riches.
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It does not, however, in the same manner as liberality, extend
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to all pecuniary actions, but only to those that are sumptuous, For in
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these it surpasses liberality in magnitude, for as its name signifies, it is
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a becoming costliness in great things. Magnitude, however, is a relative,
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for the same expense, does not become the commander of a three ranked galley
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and the president of a public spectacle. The becoming, therefore subsists with reference
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to him who spends, and to the things on which he spends his money,
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and the money which is spent. He, however, who spends with
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decorum in small or in moderate things, is not called magnificent, such as
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quote to vagrant mendicants, I oft have given close quote. But he who
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spends appropriately in great things. For the magnificent is a liberal man. But
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the liberal man is not because liberal magnificent of the habit, however, of
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this kind the deficiency, indeed is called parsimony, But the excess, vulgar
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ostentation and ignorance of what is elegant, and such other appellations as belong to
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habits which do not exceed in magnitude about things in which great expense is becoming,
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but exhibit a splendid profusion in things in which such profusion is not proper.
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Concerning these, however, we shall speak hereafter. But the magnificent resembles
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the scientific man, for he is able to survey what is the chorus,
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and can spend largely with elegance. For as we said in the beginning,
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habit is defined by energies and by those things of which it is the habit.
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But the expenses of the magnificent man are great and becoming, and such
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also are his deeds. For thus the expenses will be great and adapted to
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the deed. Hence it is necessary that the deed should be worthy the expense,
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and the expense worthy the deed, or even surpassing it. The magnificent
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man therefore spends after this manner, for the sake of the beautiful in conduct,
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for this is common to the virtues, and he also spends with pleasure.
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And largely because an accurate attention to expense is the province of a parsimonious
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man, the magnificent man, likewise, will rather consider how he may accomplish
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the most beautiful and becoming work than the money it will cost, and how
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it may be accomplished with the least expense. It is necessary, therefore,
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that the magnificent should also be a liberal man. For the liberal man spends
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what he ought and as he ought. But in these things whatever is great
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pertains to the magnificent man, magnificence being, as it were, a certain
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magnitude of liberality. Since, however, liberality is conversant with the same things
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as magnificence, the magnificent man will produce a more magnificent work from an equal
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expense. For there is not the same virtue of possession and a work,
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since the virtue of a possession is to be of great worth and most precious
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as gold, But the virtue of a work is to be great and beautiful.
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For the survey of a thing of this kind is admirable, but the
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magnificent is admirable, And the virtue of a work is magnificence in magnitude.
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Among expenses, however, which we call honorable, are such as pertained to
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the worship of the gods, gifts dedicated to divinity, the building of temples
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and sacrifices, And in a similar manner, such things as pertain to every
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demoniacal nature, and such as are bestowed on the community at large from a
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laudable ambition. Thus the expenses of the magnificent man will be of this kind
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if he should think it requisite to furnish public spectacles splendidly, or three rank
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galleys, or to feast the city. But in all things, as we
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have said, it must be considered who the agent is and what the means
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are, which he possesses, for the expense ought to be such as is
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worthy of the means, and not only adapted to the work, but also
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to him by whom it is affected. Hence, a poor cannot be a
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magnificent man, for he has not the means means of spending much in a
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becoming manner. The poor man, therefore, who endeavors to do so,
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is stupid, for such an endeavor is repugnant to his means and to the
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becoming. But that which is done rightly is done according to virtue. Such
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expense, however, becomes those who possess hereditary wealth, or have procured it
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themselves, or have derived it from their ancestors or by legacy. And it
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likewise becomes those who are noble and renowned, and other persons of the like
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kind, For all these have magnitude and dignity. The magnificent man, therefore,
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is especially a person of this description. And magnificence, as we have
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said, consists in such like expenses, for they are the greatest and the
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most honorable. With respect to private expenses, however, those pertain to the
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magnificent man, which are incurred but once, such as marriage and whatever.
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Also there may be of the like kind, and that about which the whole
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city is earnestly occupied, or those who are in the dignified situation. Also
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such expenses as pertain to the receiving and dismissing of strangers, together with gifts
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and remunerations, For the magnificent man does not spend sumptuously on himself, but
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on the public. But gifts have something similar to things consecrated to the gods.
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It is also the province of a magnificent man to build a house in
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a manner adapted to wealth, for this also is a certain ornament, and
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to bestow more upon those works which are more lasting, for these are most
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beautiful. It is likewise his province in each of these to observe the becoming,
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for the same things are not adapted to gods and men, either in
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building a temple or a sepulcher. And every essence, indeed is great in
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its own kind, and that is most magnificent, which is great in a
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great thing, but that that is so in the second place, which is
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great in these things. For there is a difference between magnitude in a work
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and magnitude in expense. Since a ball, indeed, or a most beautiful
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jug possesses the magnificence of a childish gift, but the price of these is
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small and illiberal. On this account, it is the province of a magnificent
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man to do magnificently whatever he may do in every genus of things, For
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a thing of this kind cannot easily be transcended, and the magnitude of the
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expense is appropriate. Such therefore is the magnificent man. But he who exceeds
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and is vulgarly ostentatious, exceeds by spending, as we have before observed,
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beyond what is becoming. For in small things and which require but small expense,
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he consumes much money and is discordantly splendid less. For instance, he
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will prepare a wedding dinner through ostentation, and give money to players who are
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present at the entertainment, as if it were for the public advantage. And
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in plays he will introduce a purple curtain before the scenes, as is done
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by the Megarinsians. He will likewise do everything of this kind, not for
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the sake of the beautiful in conduct, but that he may display his wealth
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and fancies. Then, on account of these things he shall be admired in
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things. Likewise, where much expense is required, he spends but little,
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but where little expense is required, he spends largely. The parsimonious man,
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however, is deficient in everything, And when he has incurred a great expense,
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then, looking to the completion of the work by a too accurate investigation,
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he leaves it imperfect through too little expense. Everything also, which he
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does is accompanied with delay and consideration, And on this account he laments and
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fancies that he does everything on a larger scale than he ought. These habits,
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therefore, are vices, Yet they do not bring with them disgrace,
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because they are neither injurious to others, nor base in the extreme. Chapter
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three. But magnanimity is conversant with great things, as is evident from the
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very name. What the quality of the things is, however, with which
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it is conversant, we must in the first place, consider. But it
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makes no difference whether we survey the habit or him who subsists according to the
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habit. He, however, appears to be magnanimous, who deserve in great
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things, thinks that he deserves them. For he who thinks thus of himself
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undeservedly is stupid, but no one who is endued with virtue is either stupid
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or a fool. The above mentioned character, therefore is magnanimous. For he
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who deserves small things and thinks that he deserves them is a modest but not
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a magnanimous man, since magnanimity consists in magnitude, just as beauty consists in
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a large body, For small men are elegant and have symmetry a form,
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but are not beautiful. He, however, who thinks that he deserves great
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things, but thus thinks undeservedly, is proud, though not everyone is proud.
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Who deserving many things thinks he deserves more. But he who estimates himself
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less than he deserves is pusillanimous. If deserving things of a moderate or small
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nature, he thinks himself to deserve still less than these, and he will
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especially appear to be a character of this kind, who deserving great things has
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this humiliating opinion of himself, for what would he do if he were not
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deserving of such things. The magnanimous man therefore is in magnitude the summit,
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but in that which is requisite the middle, For he thinks himself deserving of
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that which he does deserve, but the other characters exceed and are deficient.
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Hence, if deserving great things, he thinks that he deserves them, and
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especially if he deserves the greatest things, he will print simply be conversant with
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one thing. What this is therefore must be assumed from dessert, and dessert
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is denominated with reference to external goods. We must, however, consider that
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as the greatest of external goods, which we attribute to the gods, after
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which those who are in a dignified situation especially aspire, and which is the
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reward of the most beautiful deeds. But honor is a thing of this kind,
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for this is the greatest of external goods. The magnanimous man, therefore
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is conversant with honor and dishonor in such a manner as is proper, and
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indeed, without any reasoning process. The magnanimous appears to be conversant with honor,
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for great men especially think themselves deserving of honor, but they think so
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deservedly. The pusillanimous man, however, is deficient both with respect to himself
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and the dessert of the magnanimous man. But the proud man exceedes, indeed
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with respect to himself. Yet not with respect to the magnanimous man. The
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magnanimous man, however, if he is deserving of the greatest things, will
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be the best of men. For a better character always deserves something greater,
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and the best of characters deserves the greatest of things. Hence, it is
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necessary that the truly magnanimous man should be a good man, and that which
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is great in every virtue will appear to belong to the magnanimous man. Nor
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does it by any means accord with the character of the magnanimous man to fly
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agitated with fear or to injure any one, For on what account will he
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act basely to whom nothing is great? But from a survey of particulars,
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the magnanimous man will appear to be ridiculous if he is not a good man,
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Nor indeed will he be worthy of honor if he is a bad man.
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For honor is the reward of virtue, and is conferred on good men.
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Magnanimity therefore appears to be, as it were, a certain ornament of
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the virtues, for it causes them to be greater, and does not exist
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without them. On this account, it is truly difficult to be magnanimous,
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for it is not possible to be so without integrity and worth. The magnanimous
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man, therefore, is especially conversant with honor and dishonor, and with great
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honors. Indeed, and those which are conferred by worthy men, he is
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moderately pleased, as being things familiar and adapted to him are rather less than
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he deserves, for there can be no honor equal to the dessert of all
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perfect virtue. Nevertheless, he will admit these honors, because they have not
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anything greater to confer upon him. But he will entirely despise the honor which
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is paid him by casual persons, and for things of a trifling nature,
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for these do not accord with his dessert. And in a similar manner he
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will despise dishonor, for it will not justly befall him. The magnanimous man,
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therefore, as we have said, is especially conversant with honor. Nevertheless,
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with respect to wealth also, and power, and all prosperous and adverse
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fortune, he will conduct himself in these moderately, in whatever manner they may
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take place. And neither in prosperity will he be very much elated, nor
29:19
in adversity very much dejected, for neither is he affected with respect to honor,
29:26
as if it were the greatest of things. Since dominion and wealth are
29:30
eligible on account of honor, those therefore who possess these wish through them to
29:34
be honored to him. However, to whom honor is a small thing,
29:38
other things also will be small. Hence, likewise, magnanimous men appear to
29:44
be supercilious. Prosperity, however, seems to contribute to magnanimity, for those
29:49
that are nobly born are thought worthy of honor, and also men in authority,
29:55
and those that are rich, for they surpass others. But everything which
29:59
excel in good is more honorable. Hence, also things of this kind cause
30:03
men to be more magnanimous, for they are honored by certain persons on account
30:07
of them. In reality, however, the good man alone is to be
30:11
honored. But he who possesses both these i e. Good fortune and virtue
30:18
is reckoned more deserving of honor. Those, however, who possess such like
30:22
goods without virtue neither justly think themselves worthy of great things, nor are rightly
30:26
called magnanimous men. For magnanimity cannot exist without all perfect virtue. But those
30:33
who possess things of this kind become supercilious and insolent and bad men, For
30:38
without virtue, it is not easy to bear prosperity elegantly. But not being
30:44
able to bear prosperity, and fancying that they surpass other men, they despise
30:48
them and act in a casual manner. For they imitate the magnanimous man without
30:53
resembling him, and they do this in those things in which they are able.
30:59
They do not, therefore or act conformably to virtue, but they despise
31:03
other men. The magnanimous man, however, justly despises others, for he
31:07
forms a true opinion of men and things, but the opinion of the multitude
31:11
is casually formed. The magnanimous man also neither exposes himself to small dangers,
31:18
nor is a lover of danger, because there are but few things which he
31:22
considers to be of great importance. But he exposes himself to great dangers,
31:27
and when he is in danger, is not sparing of his life, because
31:32
he does not consider life as a thing of great importance. He is likewise
31:37
disposed to benefit others, but is a shame to be benefited, For the
31:41
former is the province of one who surpasses, but the latter of one who
31:45
is surpassed, and the benefit which he returns exceeds what he received. For
31:51
thus it will come to pass that he who first bestowed the benefit will be
31:53
his debtor, and will be benefited by him. Magnanimous men also here to
32:00
remember those whom they have benefited, but not those from whom they have derived
32:05
any advantage, For he who receives is inferior to him who confers the benefit.
32:09
But the magnanimous man wishes to excel. Hence, neither does Thetis mention
32:15
the benefits she had conferred on Jupiter, nor the Lacedaemonians those which they had
32:22
conferred on the Athenians, but those which they had received from them. It
32:25
is likewise the property of a magnanimous man to ask nothing of anyone, or
32:31
scarcely to do so, but to administer readily to the wants of others,
32:36
and towards those indeed who are in a dignified situation and in prosperous circumstances,
32:42
to be great in his behavior, but moderate towards those who are in a
32:45
middle condition. For to surpass the former is difficult and venerable but it is
32:52
easy to excel the latter, and to conduct himself with dignity. Among the
32:55
former is not ignoble, but among the lower class of men it is arrogant,
33:01
in the same manner as it would be for man to display his strength
33:05
among the infirm. It is also the property of the magnanimous man not to
33:09
betake himself to things which are held in honorable estimation, or where others possess
33:15
the principal place. Likewise, to be at leisure and given to delay,
33:20
except where great honor is to be obtained, or some great work is to
33:23
be accomplished, and to perform a few things, indeed, but these great
33:29
and celebrated. It is also necessary that he should openly hate and openly love,
33:35
For to conceal love or hatred is the province of one who is afraid.
33:38
It is likewise the property of the magnanimous man to regard truth more than
33:44
opinion, and also to speak and act openly, for this is the province
33:47
of the man who despises others. Hence he uses the greatest freedom of speech,
33:52
for this pertains to him who speaks freely. Hence, too, he
33:57
is a despiser of others, and a lover of truth, unless when he
34:00
speaks ironically, but his language is ironical to the vulgar. The magnanimous man
34:07
likewise is unable to live with any other person than a friend, for it
34:12
is servile. Hence all flatterers are mercenary, and all humble men are flatterers.
34:17
Nor is he given to admiration, for to him nothing is great in
34:22
human affairs. Nor is he mindful of injuries, for it is not the
34:27
province of a magnanimous man to be mindful, and especially of evils, but
34:31
rather to overlook them. Nor does he speak about men, for neither does
34:36
he speak about himself nor about another person, for he is not concerned either
34:40
that he himself may be praised or that others may be blamed. Nor again,
34:45
is he addicted to praise. Hence, neither does he defame anyone,
34:50
not even his enemies, unless in order to remove contumily from himself. And
34:55
in necessary or small affairs, he is by no means werless and suppliant,
35:01
for to be so is the province of a man who considers such affairs as
35:06
of great consequence. He is likewise so disposed as to prefer the possession of
35:10
things beautiful and unattended, with advantage to such as are advantageous and useful,
35:16
For this is more the province of one who is sufficient to himself. The
35:21
motion, also of the magnanimous man, is slow, his voice is grave,
35:27
and his diction stable. For he who is earnestly attentive too but few
35:30
things, is not prone to be hasty, nor is he vehemently strenuous,
35:36
who considers nothing in human affairs as great. But acuteness of voice and rapidity
35:42
of motion are produced from vehemence and considering human affairs as important. Such therefore
35:49
is the magnanimous man. He, however, who is deficient in magnanimity,
35:53
is pusillanimous, but he who exceedes is proud and arrogant. Neither, however,
36:00
do these characters appear to be bad, for they are not malevolent,
36:04
but wander from the medium. For the pusillanimous man, indeed, deserving good
36:08
things, deprives himself of what he deserves, and appears to have something depraved.
36:14
In consequence of not thinking himself to deserve what is good, he also
36:17
is ignorant of himself, for if he were not, he would aspire after
36:22
things of which he is worthy such things being good. Such men, however,
36:28
do not appear to be stupid, but rather to be sluggish. But
36:30
an opinion of this kind seems to render them worse. For everyone desires what
36:36
is adapted to his desert. They likewise withdraw themselves from beautiful actions and pursuits
36:42
as if they were unworthy of them, and in a similar manner, from
36:45
external goods. But the proud and arrogant are stupid and ignorant of themselves in
36:52
this obviously, for they endeavor to obtain honorable things as if they deserve them,
36:58
and afterwards are reprobated by others for doing so. They also study the
37:02
ornaments of dress, and graceful deportment, and the like, and they wish
37:07
that their prosperity may be apparent, and they speak of themselves as if they
37:12
were to be honored on account of these things. Peasillanimity, however, is
37:16
more opposed to magnanimity than pride and arrogance, for it more frequently occurs,
37:22
and is a worse evil. Magnanimity, therefore, is, as we have
37:25
said, conversant with great honor. Chapter four. It seems, however,
37:31
that a certain virtue is conversant with honor, as we have before observed,
37:37
which would appear to have a similar relation to magnanimity that liberality has to magnificence.
37:43
For both these virtues are remote from magnitude, but dispose us in such
37:47
a way as is proper with respect to things moderate and small. But as
37:52
in the receiving and giving of money, there are a medium excess and defect.
37:58
Thus, also in the appetition of honor, there are the more and
38:01
the less than is proper, and whence it is proper, and as it
38:06
is proper. For we blame the ambitious man as aspiring after honor more than
38:10
is proper, and whence it is not proper to obtain it. And we
38:15
blame the unambitious man as not deliberately choosing to be honored, even for actions
38:20
that are beautiful. Sometimes, however, we praise the ambitious man as virile
38:25
and a lover of beautiful conduct, but the unambitious man as modest and temperate,
38:31
as we have before observed. But it is evident that since the lover
38:36
of a certain thing is said to be so multifariously, we do not always
38:39
refer the lover of honor to the same thing. But when we praise him,
38:45
it is because he desires honor more than the vulgar desire it. And
38:49
when we blame him, it is because he desires it more than is proper.
38:52
Since, however, the medium is anonymous, the extremes appear to contend
38:57
for it as for a solitary place. But in those things in which there
39:01
are excess and defect, there is also a medium. Men also aspire after
39:07
honor more or less than is proper, and therefore they also aspire after it
39:12
in such a way as is proper. Hence, this habit is praised,
39:16
which is an anonymous medium about honor. It appears, however, with reference
39:22
to ambition, to be a privation of ambition, and to be ambition with
39:27
reference to a privation of ambition, and to be in a certain respect both
39:31
with reference to both. This also appears to be the case in the other
39:36
virtues. Here, however, the extremes are seen to be opposed to each
39:40
other, because the middle is without a name. Chapter five. But mildness
39:47
is indeed a medium conversant with anger, Since however, the virtue which conducts
39:52
itself moderately with respect to anger is anonymous, and this is also nearly the
40:00
case with the extremes, we refer mildness to the medium, though it appears
40:05
to incline rather to the deficiency in anger, which deficiency is anonymous, but
40:10
the excess may be called a certain angriness. For the passion is anger,
40:16
but the causes of it are many and various. He therefore, who is
40:21
angry from causes and with persons with which it is proper to be angry,
40:25
and farther still, in such a manner as is proper, and when and
40:30
as long as it is proper, is praised. Hence he will be a
40:35
mild man, since mildness is praised, for the mild man wishes to be
40:40
without perturbation, and not to be led by passions, but to be angry,
40:45
as reason may ordain in these things, and for as long a time
40:51
as it prescribes. He appears, however, rather to err in the deficiency
40:55
with respect to anger, for the mild man is not given to revenge,
41:00
but is rather inclined to pardon. But the deficiency, whether it be a
41:05
certain lenity or whatever it may be, is blamed. For those who are
41:09
not angry from causes for which it is proper to be angry, appear to
41:14
be stupid. And this is also the case with those who are not angry
41:19
as it is proper, nor when it is proper, nor with those persons
41:23
with whom it is proper, since they appear to be without sensation and to
41:29
be void of pain, And also since they are not angry, they are
41:32
not inclined to revenge, for it is servile for a man to endure the
41:37
insolent behavior of others towards himself and his own relations. Excess, however,
41:43
in anger, has a manifold subsistence, for it is possible to be angry
41:47
with persons and from causes with which it is not proper, and also more
41:52
and less and for a longer time than is proper. All these excesses,
41:58
however, are not inherent in the same person, for it is not possible
42:01
that they should be, for evil destroys itself, and if it is perfect
42:07
and attire is intolerable. Those therefore, who are irascable rapidly become angry,
42:13
and with things and from causes with which they ought not to be angry,
42:17
and also more than is proper. But they quickly cease to be angry,
42:22
which is a most excellent thing. But this happens to them because they do
42:25
not restrain their anger, but return an injury as soon as they have received
42:30
it. Hence, their anger, on account of its celerity, is manifest.
42:35
But afterwards they cease to be angry. The extremely irrascable, however,
42:39
are excessively rapid in their anger, and are angry with everything and on every
42:45
occasion, whence also they derive their appellation. But the bitterly angry are with
42:52
difficulty liberated from anger, and are angry for a long time, for they
42:57
detain their anger from bursting forth. They cease, however, to be angry
43:01
when they have taken vengeance on those that angered them, for vengeance appeases anger,
43:07
producing pleasure instead of pain. But if vengeance does not take place,
43:13
they are oppressed with a heavy burden, for because the manner in which they
43:16
are affected is not apparent, neither does any one persuade them to be appeased.
43:22
Time, however, is requisite for them to concoct their anger. But
43:25
to men of this description are most troublesome, to themselves and to those who
43:30
are especially their friends. We likewise call those men severe in their anger who
43:35
are angry from causes for which they ought not, and in a greater degree
43:39
and for a longer time than is proper, and who cannot be appeased without
43:44
revenge or punishment. To mildness, however, we rather oppose the excess than
43:49
the defect, for it is more frequent, since it is more human to
43:52
revenge an injury. Severe men also are worse for the purpose of association.
43:59
But that which we before observed is also manifest from what we now say,
44:04
For it is not easy to define how and with what persons, and from
44:07
what causes, and for how long a time a man should be angry,
44:12
and also to what extent he may be so rightly or erroneously. For he
44:16
who transgresses in a small degree is not blamed, whether he inclines to the
44:22
more or to the less. Since we sometimes praise those that are deficient and
44:27
call them mild, and sometimes we call those who are severely angry ferile,
44:31
as being men who are able to govern others, it is not therefore easy
44:37
to explain in words the quantity and mode of transgression which is blameable, for
44:42
the judgment of this is situated in particulars and incense. Thus much, however,
44:47
is evident that the middle habit indeed is laudable, according to which we
44:52
are angry with those persons, and from those causes that it is proper to
44:57
be so, and in such a manner as is proper, and everything else
45:00
of the like kind. But the excesses and defects are blameable. And these,
45:07
indeed, if they deviate but a little from the medium, are blameable
45:09
in a small degree, if more in a greater degree, and if much
45:15
they are very blameable. It is evident therefore that the middle habit must be
45:19
retained. And thus we have discussed the habits pertaining to anger Chapter six.
45:27
In the associations, however, of men with each other, and in the
45:30
communication of words and deeds, some persons appear to be placid and obsequious,
45:36
who praise everything with a view to pleasure of those with whom they associate,
45:39
and are not their opponents in anything, in consequence of fancying that they ought
45:45
not by any means to offend them. Others, on the contrary, are
45:49
adverse to their associates in everything, and are not at all concerned about whom
45:53
they may offend. And these are cold, morose and litigious. That the
45:58
above mentioned habits therefore are blameable, is not a manifest and also that the
46:04
medium between these is laudable, according to which a man admits what he ought
46:07
and as he ought, and is in a similar manner indignant. No name,
46:13
however, is given to this medium, but it seems especially to resemble
46:16
friendship, for he who subsists according to the middle habit is such a one
46:22
as we wish a worthy friend to be, if he also assumes, in
46:25
conjunction with it, a love resembling Felia love. But it differs from friendship
46:30
because it is without passion and a love resembling Pelia love towards those upon whom
46:37
it is exercised. For it does not admit everything in such a manner as
46:40
is fit in consequence of loving or hating, but from a habit of approving
46:45
or reprehending properly. For he who possesses this habit will be similarly affable to
46:52
those whom he does not and to those whom he does know, to his
46:55
associates, and to those with whom he does not associate, except that to
47:00
each of these his affability will be appropriate. For it does not fit similarly
47:06
to pay attention or give pain to familiars and strangers. We have therefore universally
47:13
shown that he will conduct himself in his associations in such a manner as is
47:16
proper, but referring his actions to the beautiful in conduct and the useful.
47:22
His aim will be neither to give pain to nor delight others by obsequiousness.
47:28
For this virtue appears to be conversant with the pains and pleasures which take place
47:32
in associations. But when the possessor of this virtue cannot delight his associates worthily
47:39
or without injuring them, he is indignant, and deliberately chooses to give them
47:45
pain, rather than to injure them by obsequiousness. He also will not permit
47:50
another person to be obsequious to him in those things which are attended with no
47:53
small disgrace or injury, and the contrary to which produces but little pain,
48:00
but he will rather be indignant. He will likewise associate differently with those who
48:06
are in a dignified situation and any casual persons, and with those who are
48:10
more or less known to him, in a similar manner. Also in other
48:15
differences, he will attribute to every one what it is fit for each person
48:19
to receive. And he will indeed choose to give delight to others as a
48:23
thing of itself eligible, but will cautiously avoid giving them pain. And with
48:29
respect to events, if they are greater, he will follow them. I
48:32
mean, he will follow the beautiful in conduct and the advantageous, and for
48:37
the sake of great pleasure afterwards he will give pain in a small degree.
48:42
Such therefore is the middle character. But he is without a name. With
48:46
respect however, to those who delight others, he who aims at pleasing and
48:51
nothing else may be called accommodating. But he who does this in order that
48:55
he may derive some pecuniary advantage, or such things as are procured through money,
49:00
is a flatterer. And he who is indignant with everything we have already
49:06
said, is morose and litigious. The extremes, however, appear to be
49:10
opposed to each other, because the medium is anonymous. Chapter seven. The
49:16
medium of arrogance also is nearly conversant with the same things. But this medium,
49:22
likewise is anonymous. It will not, however, be foreign from the
49:28
purpose to discuss such like habits, For by discussing each particular we shall know
49:32
more of what pertains to manners, and shall be persuaded that the virtues are
49:37
media when we understand what takes place in all of them. With respect therefore,
49:42
to the associations of men with each other, we have already spoken concerning
49:46
those who associate with a view to pleasure and pain. But let us now
49:51
consider those who are men of veracity or falsehood, alike in words and deeds
49:55
and dissimulation. The arrogant man therefore appears to be one who pretends to things
50:01
of a splendid nature which he does not possess, or to such as are
50:06
more splendid than he possesses. The dissembler, on the contrary, denies what
50:10
he possesses or makes it to be less than it is. But the middle
50:15
character, forming a just opinion of himself, is a man of veracity in
50:20
his life and in his words, acknowledging that he possesses what he does possess,
50:24
and neither more nor less. Each of these, however, may be
50:29
done for the sake of something or for the sake of nothing. But such
50:32
as a man is, such also will be his words and actions, and
50:37
such also will be his life. Unless he acts for the sake of something
50:42
of itself. However, falsehood is bad and blameable, but truth is beautiful
50:46
and laudable. Hence a man of veracity, indeed, being a middle character,
50:52
is laudable. But of the two characters who want veracity, both indeed
50:57
are blameable, but the arrogant man more than the other. We shall,
51:01
however, speak concerning each of these, and in the first place, concerning
51:06
the man of veracity. For we do not speak of the man who has
51:09
veracity in compacts and in things which pertain to injustice or justice, for this
51:15
will belong to another virtue. But we speak of him who, though nothing
51:19
of this kind should occur, is a man of veracity, both in words
51:22
and in his life, because he is such from habit. But such a
51:28
one will appear to be a worthy man. For he who is a lover
51:30
of truth, and who speaks the truth in things in which it is of
51:34
no consequence, whether he does or not, will in a still greater degree
51:38
speak the truth of things in which it is of consequence. For he will
51:43
avoid what is false as base, and which also he will, of itself
51:46
avoid. But such a man is worthy of praise. He will, however,
51:52
if it should be requisite to deviate from the medium, rather inclined to
51:55
what is less than the truth. For this appears to be more elegant,
52:00
because excesses are troublesome and invidious. But he who pretends that he possesses things
52:06
of greater consequence than he really does, and this for the sake of nothing
52:10
else, resembles indeed the depraved man, for otherwise he would not be delighted
52:15
with falsehood. Yet he seems to be rather a vain than a bad man.
52:20
If, however, he does this for the sake of something such as
52:23
glory or honor, he is not very blameable, as the arrogant man is.
52:29
But if he does it for the sake of money, or for things
52:30
which pertain to money, he is more base. But the arrogant man is
52:36
not characterized by capacity or power, but by deliberate choice, For he is
52:40
arrogant according to habit, and because he is such a character. Thus,
52:45
also with respect to the man who is without veracity when delights in falsehood itself,
52:52
but another delights in it in consequence of aspiring after glory or gain.
52:55
Those therefore, who are arrogant for the sake of glory pretend the possession of
53:00
those things for which men are praised or proclaimed to be happy. But those
53:05
who are arrogant for the sake of gain pretend to be those characters with which
53:09
others are delighted, and of which the non possession may be latent, such
53:14
as to be a physician, or a prophet, or a wise man.
53:17
On this account, most men pretend and arrogate to themselves things of this kind,
53:23
for they possess the above mentioned qualities. The semblers or the ironical,
53:28
however, who speak less than the truth, appear indeed to be more elegant
53:31
in their manners, for they do not seem to speak for the sake of
53:36
gain, but in consequence of avoiding fastidiousness. But these persons especially deny that
53:42
they possess things of an illustrious nature, as also Socrates did. Those,
53:46
however, who pretend that they do not possess small things and which are obvious,
53:52
are called crafty or delicate deceivers, and are very contemptible men. Sometimes,
53:58
also this species of dis emulation appears to be arrogance, such for instance,
54:02
as the garments of the Lacedaemonians. For excess and very great deficiency alike
54:08
pertain to arrogance. But those who moderately use irony and are ironical in things
54:14
which are not very much known and obvious, appear to be elegant men.
54:17
The arrogant man, however, seems to be opposed to the man of veracity,
54:22
for he is a worse character. Chapter eight. Since, however,
54:28
there is a certain relaxation in life and rest from labor, and since this
54:32
remission is accompanied with jesting, it appears that here also there is a certain
54:37
elegant method of conversation, in which such things are said as are proper,
54:43
and are delivered in a proper manner. And similarly with respect to hearing what
54:47
it is proper to hear, and hearing it in such a way as is
54:51
fit. But there is a difference in speaking to some persons rather than to
54:55
others, and in hearing some things rather than others. It is evident,
55:00
however, that in these things also there is an excess and deficiency with respect
55:06
to the medium. Those therefore, who exceed in the ridiculous appear to be
55:10
scurrileless and troublesome, for they entirely affect the ridiculous, and a more at
55:15
exciting laughter than at speaking in a becoming manner and not giving pain to the
55:21
object of their ridicule. But those who do not see themselves anything ridiculous,
55:25
and are indignant with those who do, appear to be rustic and rigorous.
55:30
Those, however, who est elegantly, are called facetious and versatile, as
55:36
being of a flexible genius. For of manners there appear to be such like
55:39
motions, But as a judgment is formed of bodies from motions, so likewise
55:45
of manners, Since, however, there is a redundancy of the ridiculous,
55:49
and most men delight in jests and caveling more than is proper. The scurrilous
55:53
also are called versatile, as being polite and pleasant. But that they differ
55:59
and in no small degree, is evident from what has been said to the
56:04
middle habit. Also, dexterity is appropriate, But it is the province of
56:08
a dexterous man to say in here such things as are adapted to a worthy
56:13
and liberal man, For there are certain things which it becomes such a one
56:16
to say, and here in jest. And the jesting of a liberal differs
56:21
from that of a servile man. And again the jesting of an erudite differs
56:25
from that of an inerudite man. But the truth of this may be seen
56:30
both from ancient and modern comedies. For in the former the ridiculous consisted in
56:35
obscenity, but in the latter the suspicion of obscenity rather excited laughter. These
56:40
things, however, differ in no small degree with respect to the decorous and
56:45
elegant. Whether therefore, is he who ridicules well to be defined by this
56:51
that he says what it becomes a liberal man to say, or by this
56:54
that he does not pain, or that he delights the hearer? Or shall
57:00
we say that a thing of this kind is indefinite, for a different thing
57:05
is odious and pleasing to a different person. He will also hear things of
57:09
this kind, viz. Things that are adapted to a worthy and liberal man.
57:14
For such things as a man endures to hear, such also he appears
57:17
to do. He will not therefore do or say everything. For tavilling is
57:23
a certain invective. Legislators, however, forbid certain invectives, and perhaps it
57:29
would be proper that they should also forbid caveling. The elegant and liberal man,
57:35
therefore, will so conduct himself as if he were a law to himself.
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Hence, the middle character is a man of this description, whether he
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is to be denominated dexterous or versatile. But the scurrilous man is vanquished by
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the ridiculous, and neither spares himself nor others. If he can excite laughter.
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He likewise says such things as the elegant man would never say, and
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some things that he said as the elegant man would not even endure to hear.
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The rustic man, however, is useless with respect to such conversations,
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for contributing nothing. He is indignant with all of them. But relaxation and
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jesting appear to be necessary to the life of man. There are therefore the
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above mentioned three media in life. But all of them are conversant with the
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communion of certain words and actions. They differ, however, because one of
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them is conversant with truth, but the others are conversant with the delectable.
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But of the media which pertained a pleasure, one indeed is conversant with jests,
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but the other with the associations which belong to the rest of life.
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Chapter nine. With respect to shame, it is not fit to speak of
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it as of a certain virtue, for it resembles passion more than habit.
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It is defined therefore to be a certain dread of infamy, and similar to
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fear, it is exercised about dreadful things. For those who are under the
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influence of shame become red or blush, but those who have the fear of
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death upon them are pale. Hence, both these appear to be, in
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a certain respect corporeal, which seems rather to belong to passion than to habit.
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This passion, however, is not adapted to every age, but to
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youth. For we think it requisite that young persons should be bashful, because
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they commit many errors in consequence of living from passion, but are restrained from
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the commission of them by shame. And we praise indeed bashful young men.
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But no one praises a bashful old man, for we think that he ought
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not to do anything for which he should be ashamed. For neither does shame
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pertain to a worthy man, since it is produced by bad conduct. For
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the things which cause shame are not to be done. But it makes no
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difference whether some things are in reality base but others only base according to opinion,
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for neither of these are to be done so that shame is not to
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be admitted of this kind also, viz. To do something base is the
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province of a bad man. But for a man to be so disposed as
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to be ashamed if he should do anything that is base, and to fancy
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himself on this account to be a worthy character, he is absurd. For
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shame pertains to voluntary actions, but a worthy man never voluntarily acts basely.
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Shame, however, from hypothesis, may seem to be good, for if
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a worthy man should act basely, he would be ashamed. But this does
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not pertain to the virtues. Nor if impudence is a bad thing, and
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not to be ashamed when acting basely, will it be at all a more
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worthy thing to be ashamed when performing base deeds. Neither is continence a virtue,
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but a certain mixed thing. This, however, we shall discuss hereafter.
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But let us now speak concerning justice. End of Book four