Latest / The Rise of Colonialism: How Europe Divided the World — Fexingo History / The Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs: Cortés and the Fall of Tenochtitlan
Transcript
- Lucas: So we've covered a lot of Portuguese and Dutch colonial ventures, but we haven't really talked about the Spanish conquest of the mainland Americas yet. And the most famous — and maybe most controversial — is the fall of the Aztec Empire. You've probably heard the name Hernán Cortés. Luna: Yeah, the guy who burned his ships, right? Lucas: Exactly. That's one of the enduring images. But the reality is far more complex. Cortés landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 with about 500 men, a few horses, and some cannons. The Aztec Empire, or the Triple Alliance, was a massive state controlling millions of people. How could such a small force topple it? Well, they didn't do it alone. Lucas: Cortés was a master of diplomacy and manipulation. He quickly realized that many indigenous groups resented Aztec rule. The Totonacs at Cempoala were the first to ally with him. Then came the Tlaxcalans, who were the Aztecs' bitter enemies and provided thousands of warriors. Without them, the Spanish would have been wiped out. Luna: So it was more of a civil war, with Spanish leadership? Lucas: In many ways, yes. The Aztecs had conquered and demanded tribute from numerous city-states. Cortés exploited that resentment. He also had a crucial interpreter: La Malinche, a Nahua woman who spoke Nahuatl and Maya, and later learned Spanish. She became his essential bridge to the indigenous world. Some see her as a traitor, others as a survivor navigating impossible circumstances. Luna: What was Moctezuma's reaction to Cortés's approach? Lucas: Moctezuma II, the Aztec emperor, was initially indecisive. There were legends about the return of the god Quetzalcoatl, and Cortés may have been mistaken for that deity — though historians debate how much that really affected Moctezuma. He sent gifts, including the famous gold and silver discs, hoping to appease the Spanish. But that only whetted their appetite. Lucas: Cortés marched inland, and in November 1519, he entered Tenochtitlan — the magnificent island city with its canals, pyramids, and marketplaces. Moctezuma received him, but Cortés soon took the emperor hostage in his own palace, essentially ruling through him. That lasted for months. Luna: How did the Aztecs respond to that? Lucas: Tensions boiled over when Cortés left the city to deal with a rival Spanish expedition sent by the governor of Cuba. In his absence, his lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado massacred Aztec nobles during a festival. That sparked a massive uprising. When Cortés returned, he found the city in open rebellion. Moctezuma was brought out to calm the crowd, but he was killed — either stoned by his own people or killed by the Spanish, accounts vary. Luna: That's the Noche Triste, right? The Night of Sorrows? Lucas: Yes. On the night of June 30, 1520, Cortés and his men tried to sneak out of Tenochtitlan, laden with gold. But they were discovered. The Aztecs attacked from the causeways and canoes. Hundreds of Spanish and thousands of Tlaxcalans were killed. Cortés himself was wounded. He supposedly sat under a tree and wept. But he regrouped. Lucas: Now comes the remarkable turnaround. At the Battle of Otumba in July 1520, Cortés and his remaining forces faced a huge Aztec army. The Spanish cavalry, which the Aztecs had never seen, broke through their lines. Cortés killed the Aztec commander, and the army fled. That victory gave the Spanish breathing room. Luna: So the cavalry was a game changer? Lucas: Absolutely. Horses, steel swords, and armor gave the Spanish a huge tactical advantage, but numbers still mattered. Cortés spent the next months rebuilding alliances. The Tlaxcalans stayed loyal, and many other city-states joined him against the Aztecs. Meanwhile, a smallpox epidemic devastated Tenochtitlan. The new emperor, Cuitláhuac, died of it, and was replaced by the young Cuauhtémoc. Lucas: In the spring of 1521, Cortés laid siege to Tenochtitlan. He built brigantines — small ships — to control the lake. He cut off the city's water supply and food. The siege lasted 93 days. The Aztecs fought desperately, but they were starving and sick. On August 13, 1521, Cuauhtémoc surrendered. The city was largely destroyed, and the Spanish began building Mexico City on its ruins. Luna: What happened to Cuauhtémoc? Lucas: Cortés initially treated him as a prisoner, but later tortured him to reveal the location of Aztec gold. Eventually, Cortés took him on an expedition to Honduras and, fearing rebellion, had him hanged in 1525. He's remembered as a heroic figure in Mexico today. Luna: It's such a brutal story. And the Spanish justified it by claiming they were bringing civilization and Christianity. Lucas: Exactly. The conquest was framed as a holy mission, but it was driven by greed for gold and glory. Cortés himself wrote letters to King Charles V justifying his actions, but he also destroyed a civilization. The debate over the morality of the conquest continues to this day. And it's a pattern we'll see repeated across the Americas. Lucas: One thing that often gets overlooked is the role of indigenous allies. The Tlaxcalans, for example, were promised autonomy and privileges. But after the conquest, they were gradually subjugated too. The Spanish didn't keep their promises. Luna: So they were used and then discarded? Lucas: Pretty much. The encomienda system was imposed, forcing indigenous people into labor. The population collapse from disease and violence was catastrophic. It's estimated that central Mexico's population dropped from about 15 million in 1519 to under 2 million by 1600. Luna: That's staggering. And all because of a few hundred men with horses and guns. Lucas: Well, it was more the combination of European diseases, internal divisions, and superior technology. But yes, it's a profound turning point in world history. The Aztec Empire fell, and Spain became the dominant power in the Americas for centuries. It set the stage for the global colonial system we've been exploring in this series. Lucas: So next time, we might look at the Inca Empire and how Pizarro's even smaller force conquered them. But that's a story for another day.