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029 - Question 112 - OF THE CAUSE OF GRACE In Five Articles · Summa Theologica - Treatise on Law and Grace

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  Speaker 1: Question one hundred and twelve of Sumathiologica Prima Secunde Treatise
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  Speaker 1: on Grace. This is the LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings
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  Speaker 1: are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer,
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  Speaker 1: please visit LibriVox dot org. Summa Theologica Prima Secunde Treates
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  Speaker 1: on Grace by Saint Thomas aquinas translated by the Fathers
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  Speaker 1: of the English Dominican Province. Question one hundred and twelve
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  Speaker 1: of the Cause of Grace in five articles. We must
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  Speaker 1: now consider the cause of grace, And under this head
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  Speaker 1: there are five points of inquiry. First, whether God alone
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  Speaker 1: is the efficient cause of grace. Second, whether any disposition
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  Speaker 1: towards grace is needed on the part of the recipient
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  Speaker 1: by an act act of free will. Third, whether such
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  Speaker 1: a disposition can make grace follow of necessity. Fourth, whether
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  Speaker 1: grace is equal in all. Fifth, whether any one may
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  Speaker 1: know that he has grace.
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  Speaker 2: First article, whether God alone is the cause of grace.
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  Speaker 2: Objection one. It would seem that God alone is not
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  Speaker 2: the cause of grace, for it is written in John
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  Speaker 2: one seventeen Grace and truth came by Jesus Christ, now
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  Speaker 2: by the name of Jesus Christ is understood not merely
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  Speaker 2: the divine nature assuming, but the created nature assumed. Therefore,
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  Speaker 2: a creature may be the cause of grace. Objection two. Further,
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  Speaker 2: there is this difference between the sacraments of the New
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  Speaker 2: Law and those of the old, that the sacraments of
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  Speaker 2: the New Law cause grace, whereas the sacraments of the
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  Speaker 2: old law merely signify it. Now, the sacraments of the
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  Speaker 2: New Law are certain visible elements. Therefore God is not
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  Speaker 2: the only cause of grace. Objection three. Further, according to
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  Speaker 2: Dionysius in on the Heavenly Hierarchy three, four, seven, and eight,
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  Speaker 2: angels cleanse enlighten, and perfect both lesser angels and men.
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  Speaker 2: Now the rational creature is cleansed, enlightened, and perfected by grace. Therefore,
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  Speaker 2: God is not the only cause of grace. On the contrary,
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  Speaker 2: it is written in Psalm eighty three, verse twelve, the
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  Speaker 2: Lord will give grace and glory. I answer that nothing
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  Speaker 2: can act beyond its species, since the cause must always
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  Speaker 2: be more powerful than its effect. Now, the gift of
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  Speaker 2: grace surpasses every capability of created nature, since it is
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  Speaker 2: nothing short of a partaking of the divine nature, which
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  Speaker 2: exceeds every other nature. And thus it is impossible that
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  Speaker 2: any creature should cause grace. For it is as necessary
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  Speaker 2: that God alone should deify, bestowing a partaking of the
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  Speaker 2: divine nature by a participated likeness, as it is impossible
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  Speaker 2: that anything save fire should Enkindle replied to Objection one,
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  Speaker 2: Christ's humanity is an organ of his Godhead, as Damascene
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  Speaker 2: says in On the True Faith three nineteen. Now, an
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  Speaker 2: instrument does not bring forth the action of the principal
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  Speaker 2: agent by its own power, but in virtue of the
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  Speaker 2: principal agent. Hence, Christ's humanity does not cause grace by
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  Speaker 2: its own power, but by virtue of the divine nature
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  Speaker 2: joined to it, whereby the actions of Christ's humanity are
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  Speaker 2: saving actions. Reply to objection two. As in the person
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  Speaker 2: of Christ, the humanity causes our salvation by grace, the
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  Speaker 2: divine power being the principal agent. So likewise, in the
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  Speaker 2: sacraments of the New Law, which are derived from Christ,
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  Speaker 2: grace is instrumentally caused by the sacraments, and principally by
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  Speaker 2: the power of the Holy Ghost working in the sacraments.
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  Speaker 2: According to John three five, unless a man be born
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  Speaker 2: again of water and the ho ghost, he cannot enter
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  Speaker 2: into the Kingdom of God. Reply to Objection three. Angels cleanse, enlighten,
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  Speaker 2: and perfect angels or men by instruction, and not by
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  Speaker 2: justifying them through grace. Hence Dionysius says in On the
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  Speaker 2: Heavenly Hierarchy seven that this cleansing and enlightenment and perfecting
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  Speaker 2: is nothing else than the assumption of divine knowledge. Second article,
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  Speaker 2: Whether any preparation and disposition for grace is required on
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  Speaker 2: man's part? Objection one. It would seem that no preparation
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  Speaker 2: or disposition for grace is required on man's part, since,
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  Speaker 2: as the apostle says in Romans forfour, to him that
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  Speaker 2: worketh the reward is not reckoned according to grace, but
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  Speaker 2: according to debt. Now a man's preparation by free will
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  Speaker 2: can only be through some operation. Hence it would do
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  Speaker 2: away with the notion of grace. Objection two. Further, whoever
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  Speaker 2: is going on sinning is not preparing himself to have grace,
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  Speaker 2: but some who are going on sinning grace is given,
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  Speaker 2: as is clear in the case of Paul, who received
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  Speaker 2: grace whilst he was breathing out threatenings and slaughter against
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  Speaker 2: the disciples of the Lord, as is stated and Acts
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  Speaker 2: nine to one. Hence no preparation for graces required on
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  Speaker 2: man's part Objection three. Further, an agent of infinite power
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  Speaker 2: needs no disposition in matter, since it does not even
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  Speaker 2: require matter, as appears in creation to which grace is compared,
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  Speaker 2: which is called a new creature according to Galatians six fifteen.
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  Speaker 2: But only God, who has infinite power, causes grace, as
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  Speaker 2: stated above in Article one. Hence no preparation is required
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  Speaker 2: on man's part to obtain grace. On the contrary, it
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  Speaker 2: is written in Amos for twelve be prepared to meet
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  Speaker 2: Thy God, O Israel, and in First Kings seven three
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  Speaker 2: prepare your hearts unto the Lord. I answer that as
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  Speaker 2: stated above in Question one hundred and eleven Article two.
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  Speaker 2: Grace is taken in two ways, first as a habitual
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  Speaker 2: gift of God, secondly as a help from God who
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  Speaker 2: moves the soul to good. Now taking grace in the
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  Speaker 2: first sense, a certain preparation of grace is required for it,
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  Speaker 2: since a form can only be in disposed matter. But
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  Speaker 2: if we speak of grace as it signifies the help
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  Speaker 2: from God to move us to good, no preparation is
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  Speaker 2: required on man's part, that, as it were, anticipates the
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  Speaker 2: divine help. But rather every preparation in man must be
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  Speaker 2: by the help of God moving the soul to good.
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  Speaker 2: And thus even the good movement of the free will,
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  Speaker 2: whereby anyone is prepared for receiving the gift of grace,
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  Speaker 2: is an act of the free will moved by God.
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  Speaker 2: And thus man is said to prepare himself. According to
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  Speaker 2: Proverbs sixteen one, it is the part of man to
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  Speaker 2: prepare the soul, yet it is principally from God, who
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  Speaker 2: moves the free will. Hence it is said that man's
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  Speaker 2: will is prepared by God, and that man's steps are
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  Speaker 2: guided by God. Reply to objection one, A certain preparation
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  Speaker 2: of man for grace is simultaneous with the infusion of grace,
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  Speaker 2: and this operation is meritorious, not indeed of grace, which
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  Speaker 2: is already possessed, but of glory, which is not yet possessed.
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  Speaker 2: But there is another, imperfect preparation which sometimes precedes the
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  Speaker 2: gift of sanctifying grace. And yet it is from God's motion,
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  Speaker 2: but it does not suffice for merit, since man is
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  Speaker 2: not yet justified by grace. And merit can only arise
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  Speaker 2: from grace, as will be seen further on in Question
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  Speaker 2: one hundred and fourteen, Article two. Reply to objection two.
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  Speaker 2: Since a man cannot prepare himself for grace unless God
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  Speaker 2: prevent and move him to good, it is of no
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  Speaker 2: account whether anyone arrive at perfect preparation instantaneously or step
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  Speaker 2: by step, For it is written in Ecclesiasticus eleven twenty
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  Speaker 2: three it is easy in the eyes of God on
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  Speaker 2: a sudden to make the poor man rich. Now it
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  Speaker 2: sometimes happens that God moves a man to good, but
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  Speaker 2: not perfect good, and this preparation precedes grace. But He
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  Speaker 2: sometimes moves him suddenly and perfectly to good, and man
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  Speaker 2: receives grace suddenly. According to John six forty five, every
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  Speaker 2: one that hath heard of the Father and hath learned,
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  Speaker 2: cometh to me. Thus it happened to Paul, since suddenly,
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  Speaker 2: when he was in the midst of sin, his heart
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  Speaker 2: was perfectly moved by God to hear, to learn to come,
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  Speaker 2: and he received grace suddenly. Reply to objection three. An
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  Speaker 2: agent of infinite power needs no matter or disposition of
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  Speaker 2: matter brought about by the action of something else, and
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  Speaker 2: yet looking to the condition of the thing caused, it
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  Speaker 2: must cause in the thing caused both the matter and
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  Speaker 2: the due disposition for the form. So likewise, when God
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  Speaker 2: infuses grace into a soul, no preparation is required, which
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  Speaker 2: he himself does not bring about. Third article, whether grace
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  Speaker 2: is necessarily given to whoever prepares himself for it or
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  Speaker 2: to whoever does what he can? Objection one. It would
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  Speaker 2: seem that grace is necessarily given to whoever prepares himself
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  Speaker 2: for grace, or to whoever does what he can, because,
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  Speaker 2: according to Romans five to one, being justified by faith,
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  Speaker 2: let us have peace, et cetera. The class says, God
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  Speaker 2: welcomes whoever flies to him, otherwise there would be injustice
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  Speaker 2: with him. But it is impossible for injustice to be
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  Speaker 2: with God. Therefore it is impossible for God not to
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  Speaker 2: welcome whoever flies to him. Hence he receives grace of
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  Speaker 2: necessity Objection two. Further, Anselm says in On the Fall
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  Speaker 2: of the Devil three that the reason why God does
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  Speaker 2: not bestow grace on the devil is that he did
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  Speaker 2: not wish nor was he prepared to receive it. But
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  Speaker 2: if the cause be removed the effect must needs be removed. Also, therefore,
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  Speaker 2: if anyone is willing to receive grace, it is bestowed
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  Speaker 2: on them of necessity. Objection three. Further, good is diffusive
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  Speaker 2: of itself, as appears from Dionysius in on the Divine Names. Four. Now,
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  Speaker 2: the good of grace is better than the good of nature. Hence,
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  Speaker 2: since natural forms necessarily come to disposed matter, much more
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  Speaker 2: does it seem that grace is necessarily bestowed on whoever
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  Speaker 2: prepares himself for grace. On the contrary, man is compared
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  Speaker 2: to God as clay to the potter, according to Jeremiah
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  Speaker 2: eighteen six, as clay is in the hand of the potter,
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  Speaker 2: so are you in my hand. But however much the
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  Speaker 2: clay is prepared, it does not necessarily receive its shape
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  Speaker 2: from the potter. Hence, however much a man prepares himself,
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  Speaker 2: he does not necessarily receive grace from God. I answer that,
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  Speaker 2: as stated above in Article two, man's preparation for grace
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  Speaker 2: is from God as mover, and from the free will
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  Speaker 2: as moved. Hence, the preparation may be looked at in
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  Speaker 2: two ways. First, as it is from free will, and
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  Speaker 2: thus there is no necessity that it should obtain grace,
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  Speaker 2: since the gift of grace exceeds every preparation of human power.
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  Speaker 2: But it may be considered secondly as it is from
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  Speaker 2: God the Mover, and thus it has a necessity, not
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  Speaker 2: indeed of coercion, but of infallibility as regards what it
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  Speaker 2: is ordained by God, since God's intention cannot fail. According
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  Speaker 2: to the saying of Augustine in his word Book on
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  Speaker 2: the Predestination of the Saints, that by God's good gifts,
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  Speaker 2: whoever is liberated is most certainly liberated. Hence, if God
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  Speaker 2: intends while moving that the one whose heart he moves
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  Speaker 2: should attain to grace, he will infallibly attain to it.
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  Speaker 2: According to John six forty five, every one that hath
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  Speaker 2: heard of the Father and hath learned, cometh to me.
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  Speaker 2: Reply to objection one, this glass is speaking of such
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  Speaker 2: as fly to God by a meritorious act of their
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  Speaker 2: free will, already informed with grace, for if they did
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  Speaker 2: not receive grace, it would be against the justice which
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  Speaker 2: he himself established. Or if it refers to the movement
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  Speaker 2: of free will before grace, it is speaking in the
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  Speaker 2: sense that man's flight to God is by a divine
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  Speaker 2: motion which ought not in justice to fail. Reply to
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  Speaker 2: Objection two. The first cause of the defect of grace
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  Speaker 2: is on our part, but the first cause of the
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  Speaker 2: bestowal of grace is on God's. According to Hoseiah thirteen nine,
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  Speaker 2: destruction is thy own, o Israel, Thy health is only
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  Speaker 2: in me. Reply to Objection three. Even in natural things,
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  Speaker 2: the form does not necessarily ensue the disposition of the matter,
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  Speaker 2: except by the power of the agent that causes the disposition.
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  Speaker 2: Fourth Article. Whether grace is greater in one than in another?
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  Speaker 2: Objection one, it would seem that grace is not great
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  Speaker 2: in one than in another, For grace is caused in
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  Speaker 2: us by the divine love is stated above in Question
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  Speaker 2: one hundred and ten. Article one. Now it is written
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  Speaker 2: in Wisdom six eight. He made the little and the great,
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  Speaker 2: and he hath equally care of all. Therefore all obtain
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  Speaker 2: grace from Him equally. Objection two. Further, whatever is the
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  Speaker 2: greatest possible cannot be more or less. But grace is
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  Speaker 2: the greatest possible, since it joins us with our last end.
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  Speaker 2: Therefore there is no greater or lesser in it. Hence,
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  Speaker 2: it is not greater in one than in another. Objection three. Further,
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  Speaker 2: grace is the soul's life, as stated above in Question
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  Speaker 2: one hundred and ten Article one. Second reply, But there
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  Speaker 2: is no greater or less in life, Hence neither is
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  Speaker 2: there in grace. On the contrary, it is written in
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  Speaker 2: Ephesians four to seven. But to every one of us
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  Speaker 2: is given grace according to the measure of the giving
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  Speaker 2: of Christ. Now, what is given in measure is not
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  Speaker 2: given to all equally, hence all have not an equal grace.
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  Speaker 2: I answer that, as stated above in question fifty two,
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  Speaker 2: articles one and two, as well as in question fifty six,
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  Speaker 2: Articles one and two, habits can have a double magnitude,
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  Speaker 2: one as regards the end or object, as when a
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  Speaker 2: virtue is said to be more noble through being ordained
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  Speaker 2: to a greater good, the other on the part of
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  Speaker 2: the subject, which more or less participates in the habit,
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  Speaker 2: indhering to it. Now, as regards the first magnitude, sanctifying
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  Speaker 2: grace cannot be greater or less, since of its nature
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  Speaker 2: grace joins man to the highest good, which is God.
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  Speaker 2: But as regards the subject, grace can receive more or
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  Speaker 2: less inasmuch as one may be more perfectly enlightened by
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  Speaker 2: grace than another. And a certain reason for this is
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  Speaker 2: on the part of him who prepares himself for grace,
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  Speaker 2: since he who is better prepared for grace receives more grace. Yet,
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  Speaker 2: it is not here that we must seek the first
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  Speaker 2: cause of this diversity, since man prepares himself only inasmuch
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  Speaker 2: as his free will is prepared by God. Hence, the
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  Speaker 2: first cause of this diversity is to be sought on
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  Speaker 2: the part of God, who dispenses his gifts of grace
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  Speaker 2: variously in order that the beauty and perfection of the
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  Speaker 2: Church may result from these various degrees, even as He
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  Speaker 2: instituted the various conditions of things that the universe might
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  Speaker 2: be perfect. Hence, after the Apostle had said in Ephesians
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  Speaker 2: four seven, to every one of us is given grace
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  Speaker 2: according to the measure of the giving of Christ. Having
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  Speaker 2: enumerated the various graces, he adds in Ephesians four twelve
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  Speaker 2: for the perfecting of the saints, for the edifying of
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  Speaker 2: the body of Christ. Reply to objection one, the divine
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  Speaker 2: care may be looked at in two ways. First, as
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  Speaker 2: regards the divine act, which is simple and uniform, and
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  Speaker 2: thus his care looks equally to all, since by one
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  Speaker 2: simple act he administers great things and little. But secondly,
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  Speaker 2: it may be considered in those things which come to
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  Speaker 2: be considered by the divine care. And thus inequality is
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  Speaker 2: found inasmuch as God, by his care provides greater gifts
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  Speaker 2: to some and lesser gifts for others. Reply to Objection two.
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  Speaker 2: This objection is based on the first kind of magnitude
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  Speaker 2: of grace, since grace cannot be greater by ordaining to
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  Speaker 2: a greater good, but inasmuch as it more or less
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  Speaker 2: ordains to a greater or less participation of the same good,
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  Speaker 2: For there may be diversity of intensity and remissness, both
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  Speaker 2: in grace and in final glory, as regards the subjects participation.
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  Speaker 2: Reply to Objection three. Natural life pertains to man's substance,
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  Speaker 2: and hence cannot be more or less. But man partakes
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  Speaker 2: of the life of grace accidentally, and hence man may
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  Speaker 2: possess it more or less. Fifth article, Whether man can
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  Speaker 2: know that he has grace Objection one. You would seem
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  Speaker 2: that man can know that he has grace, for grace
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  Speaker 2: by its physical reality, is in the soul. Now, the
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  Speaker 2: soul has most certain knowledge of those things that are
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  Speaker 2: in it by their physical reality, as appears from Augustine
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  Speaker 2: in on the Literal Interpretation of Genesis twelve thirty one. Hence,
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  Speaker 2: grace may be known most certainly by one who has grace.
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  Speaker 2: Objection two. Further, as knowledge is a gift of God,
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  Speaker 2: so is grace. But whoever receives knowledge from God knows
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  Speaker 2: that he has knowledge. According to Wisdom seven seventeen, the
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  Speaker 2: Lord hath given me the true knowledge of the things
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  Speaker 2: that are. Hence, with equal reason, whoever receives grace from
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  Speaker 2: God knows that he has grace. Objection three Further, light
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  Speaker 2: is more knowable than darkness, since, according to the Apostle
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  Speaker 2: in Ephesians five thirteen, all that is made manifest is light. Now, sin,
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  Speaker 2: which is spiritual darkness, may be known with certainty by
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  Speaker 2: one that is in sin. Much more. Therefore, make grace,
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  Speaker 2: which is spiritual light, be known. Objection four. Further, the
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  Speaker 2: apostle says in First Corinthians two twelve, Now we have
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  Speaker 2: received not the spirit of this world, but the spirit
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  Speaker 2: that is of God, that we may know the things
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  Speaker 2: that are given us from God. Now, grace is God's
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  Speaker 2: first gift. Hence, the man who receives grace by the
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  Speaker 2: Holy Spirit. By the same Holy Spirit knows the grace
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  Speaker 2: given to him Objection five. Further, it was said by
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  Speaker 2: the Lord to Abraham in Genesis twenty to twelve. Now
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  Speaker 2: I know that thou Fearest God, that is I have
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  Speaker 2: made thee know. Now he is speaking there of chaste fear,
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  Speaker 2: which is not apart from grace. Hence a man may
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  Speaker 2: know that he has grace. On the contrary, it is
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  Speaker 2: written in Ecclesiastes nine, one man knoweth not whether he
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  Speaker 2: be worthy of love or hatred. Now sank a deifying
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  Speaker 2: grace maketh a man worthy of God's love. Therefore no
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  Speaker 2: one can know whether he has sanctifying grace. I answer
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  Speaker 2: that there are three ways of knowing a thing. First
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  Speaker 2: by revelation, and thus any one may know that he
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  Speaker 2: has grace. For God by a special privilege, reveals this
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  Speaker 2: at times to some, in order that the joy of
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  Speaker 2: safety may begin in them even in this life, and
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  Speaker 2: that they may carry on toilsome works with greater trust
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  Speaker 2: and greater energy, and may bear the evils of this
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  Speaker 2: present life. As when it was said to Paul in
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  Speaker 2: Second Corinthians twelve nine, My grace is sufficient for thee. Secondly,
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  Speaker 2: a man may of himself know something and with certainty,
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  Speaker 2: and in this way no one can know that he
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  Speaker 2: has grace. For certitude of a thing can only be
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  Speaker 2: had when we may judge of it by its proper principle.
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  Speaker 2: Thus it is by undemonstrable universal principles that certitude is
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  Speaker 2: obtained concerning demonstrative conclusions. Now, no one can know that
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  Speaker 2: he has the knowledge of a conclusion if he does
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  Speaker 2: not know its principle. But the principle of grace and
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  Speaker 2: its object is God, who by reason of his very excellence,
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  Speaker 2: is unknown to us according to Job thirty six twenty six. Behold,
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  Speaker 2: God is great, exceeding our knowledge, and hence his presence
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  Speaker 2: in us, and his absence cannot be known with certainty.
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  Speaker 2: According to Job nine eleven, if he come to me,
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  Speaker 2: I shall not see him. If he depart, I shall
• 26:54
  Speaker 2: not understand. And hence man cannot judge with so certainty
• 27:00
  Speaker 2: that he has grace according to First Corinthians four, Verses
• 27:04
  Speaker 2: three and four. But neither do I judge my own self,
• 27:10
  Speaker 2: But he that judgeth me is the Lord. Thirdly, things
• 27:17
  Speaker 2: are known conjecturally by signs, and thus any one may
• 27:22
  Speaker 2: know he has grace when he is conscious of delighting
• 27:25
  Speaker 2: in God and of despising worldly things, And inasmuch as
• 27:30
  Speaker 2: a man is not conscious of any mortal sin. And
• 27:34
  Speaker 2: thus it is written in Apocalypse two seventeen to him
• 27:39
  Speaker 2: that overcometh, I will give the hidden manner, which no
• 27:43
  Speaker 2: man knoweth, but he that receiveth it, because whoever receives
• 27:48
  Speaker 2: it knows by experiencing a certain sweetness, which he who
• 27:54
  Speaker 2: does not receive it does not experience. Yet this knowledge
• 27:59
  Speaker 2: is perfect. Hence the Apostle says in First Corinthians four
• 28:03
  Speaker 2: to four, I am not conscious to myself of anything.
• 28:08
  Speaker 2: Yet I am not hereby justified, Since according to Psalm
• 28:13
  Speaker 2: eighteen thirteen, who can understand sins from my secret ones?
• 28:19
  Speaker 2: Cleanse me, o, Lord, and from those of others, spare
• 28:22
  Speaker 2: thy servant. Reply to objection one, Those things which are
• 28:31
  Speaker 2: in the soul, by their physical reality, are known through
• 28:35
  Speaker 2: experimental knowledge, in so far as through acts man has
• 28:40
  Speaker 2: experience of their inward principles. Thus, when we wish, we
• 28:45
  Speaker 2: perceive that we have a will, and when we exercise
• 28:48
  Speaker 2: the functions of life, we observe that there is life
• 28:51
  Speaker 2: in us. Reply to objection two. It is an essential
• 28:59
  Speaker 2: condition of knowledge that a man should have certitude of
• 29:02
  Speaker 2: the objects of knowledge. And again it is an essential
• 29:07
  Speaker 2: condition of faith that a man should be certain of
• 29:10
  Speaker 2: the things of faith, and this because certitude belongs to
• 29:14
  Speaker 2: the perfection of the intellect, wherein these gifts exist. Hence,
• 29:20
  Speaker 2: whoever has knowledge or faith is certain that he has them.
• 29:25
  Speaker 2: But it is otherwise with grace and charity and such
• 29:28
  Speaker 2: like which perfect the appetitive faculty. Reply to objection three.
• 29:38
  Speaker 2: Sin has for its principal object commutable good, which is
• 29:43
  Speaker 2: known to us, but the object or end of grace
• 29:47
  Speaker 2: is unknown to us on account of the greatness of
• 29:49
  Speaker 2: its light. According to First Timothy six sixteen, who inhabiteth
• 29:55
  Speaker 2: light inaccessible Reply to objection four. The apostle is here
• 30:04
  Speaker 2: speaking of the gifts of glory which have been given
• 30:07
  Speaker 2: to us in hope. And these we know most certainly
• 30:11
  Speaker 2: by faith, although we do not know for certain that
• 30:14
  Speaker 2: we have grace to enable us to merit them. Or
• 30:19
  Speaker 2: it may be said that he is speaking of the
• 30:20
  Speaker 2: privileged knowledge which comes of revelation. Hence he adds in
• 30:26
  Speaker 2: First Corinthians two ten. But to us God hath revealed
• 30:31
  Speaker 2: them by his spirit reply to Objection five. What was
• 30:38
  Speaker 2: said to Abraham may refer to experimental knowledge, which springs
• 30:43
  Speaker 2: from deeds of which we are cognizant, For in the
• 30:47
  Speaker 2: deed that Abraham had just wrought, he could know experimentally
• 30:51
  Speaker 2: that he had the fear of God. Or it may
• 30:55
  Speaker 2: refer to a revelation.
• 30:59
  Speaker 1: End of question than one hundred and twelve read by
• 31:02
  Speaker 1: Michael Shane, Craig Lambert, l C.